Roman triremes and liburns dominated the Mediterranean until the last centuries of the Roman Empire (IV-V centuries AD). Compared to the times of the Republic, during this period the tendencies of the development of the Roman fleet changed. If during the III-I century. BC. there was a steady growth in the size and power of warships - from biremes to triremes, from triremes to quinquerems and further up to enner and dezemrem, then later both combat and merchant ships became smaller and lighter.

So, in 323 A.D. Constantine with 200 liburn defeated the fleet of the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, consisting of 350 trireme... The defeat of this grandiose fleet can be considered the finale of a brilliant career as a trireme in the naval theaters of operations. Since then, three-tiered rowing ships have never been built.

Zosima, historian of the 5th century AD, defines the liburns of Constantine as triacons, heirs of the Greek thirty-oar ships of the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. However, modern researchers are inclined to believe that it was more about analogs pentekontors... Thus, the history of the sea power of the ancient powers of the Mediterranean, having described a full circle for a millennium, returned again to small maneuverable single-tier ships. At the same time, it should be noted that such a regression was associated more with economic and political reasons than with any special qualitative growth in shipbuilding, which would have allowed the destructive power of a multi-tiered warship to be concentrated on a simple gallery. It's just that the Empire no longer had sufficient productive forces and finances, as well as military-political goals, for the sake of which the magnificent fleets of the era of the Punic wars should be revived.

Two centuries after the described battle (that is, in the 6th century), the Emperor Justinian put the modified triacontor at the basis of the military fleet of the Byzantine Empire. This ship was named dromon (racer, Greek). Despite the promising name, the dromon was hardly faster than similar galleys in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is believed that the return to such modest ships of the Byzantines was forced by the desire for cheapness and ease of maintenance of their fleet, which at that time had no worthy opponents. Byzantium in the 6th century waged mainly land wars with its dangerous eastern rival - Sassanian Persia.

Initially, the dromon was open, that is, deckless (Greek. afracta) a rowing ship with one tier of oars and removable sailing equipment. However, after a while, the situation changed. Byzantium became stronger both militarily and economically, and a new threat dawned in the south - the Arabs. The latter, quickly gaining control over the Levantine coast, gained access to the vast fleets of the local coastal cities, where skillful sailors had lived since ancient times (suffice it to recall the Phoenicians).

For this reason, the Byzantine fleet underwent the same evolution as the Greek in the 8th-7th centuries. BC. Since single-tier deckless ships did not guarantee reliable protection of the Aegean basin and Constantinople from the sea threat, the Byzantines enlarged the dromon and made it two-tiered, and single-tier ships began to be called moneras or galleys ( moneres and galea respectively). Dromons turned into deckless 100-oar biremes (25 oars on each tier from each side), acquired 1-2 masts with "Latin" oblique sails and became battleships of the Byzantine fleet. Instead of a solid deck, the dromons had three through deck passages raised above the rowers: along each side, and the central one, passing along the axis of symmetry of the ship.

Later, during the VII-XV centuries. dromons have been modified and altered many times. According to Byzantine sources, one can judge the existence of at least three types of dromons: usiaco,pamphilos and the third, the largest, with no special name.

The name "usiaco" comes from the Greek word "usia", which, in particular, meant a detachment of 100 people. Fifty professional rowers were on the lower tier and rowed both on the crossings and during the fight. The second fifty consisted of soldiers, occupied the upper rowing tier and rowed only on the passages. During the battle, they removed the oars and performed the same functions as the marines (liburnarii) of the Roman fleet. That is, they hit the enemy with projectiles and engaged in boarding fights.

Pamphilos was generally similar to the usiaco, but had a crew of 120-160 people. Finally, the third, most large type Dromona took on board up to 200 people. Of these, 150 were rowers, distributed as follows: 50 on the lower tier, one person per oar, and 100 - on the upper tier, 2 oarsmen for each oar. Another 50 were Marines.

All three modifications of the dromons had a generally similar design. The side walkways and rowers' benches were protected by removable shields. The oars were brought out directly through the holes in the sides, without additional box-like extensions like the antique parados. Dromons were equipped with battering rams, but the Byzantines made their main bet on powerful throwing machines and "greek fire" .

Also in the Byzantine fleet there were ships called "helandia". Researchers find it difficult to unequivocally determine which type of ships was designated by this term. Most likely, however, we are talking about the colloquial name of the largest dromons.

There is not much reliable information about the combat use of the dromons, but some interesting details can be gleaned from the two passages below.

"On the eleventh of July of the fourteenth indicta on ten thousand ships sailed to Constantinople dews, which are also called Dromites, they come from the tribe of the Franks. A patrician was sent against them with all the dromons and triremes that had just appeared in the city. He equipped and put in order. fleet, strengthened itself with fasting and tears and prepared to fight the dew.

When the dews approached and approached Pharos (...), a patrician, located at the entrance to the Euxine pontus (...), unexpectedly attacked them on Hieron, which received this name because of the sanctuary built by the Argonauts during the campaign. The first patrician who came out on his dromon scattered the formation of the dew ships, set many of them on fire, and put the rest to flight. Other dromons and triremes that followed him completed the rout, sank many ships along with the crew, killed many, and took even more alive. " (Continuation of Theophanes. Biography of the Byzantine kings)

"The king of this people was [someone] named Igor, who, having collected a thousand and even more ships, came to Constantinople. Emperor Roman, hearing about this, was tormented by thoughts, for his entire fleet was sent against the Saracens and to defend the islands. as he spent many sleepless nights in thought, and Igor ravaged the entire coast, Roman was told that he had only 15 half-broken Helandias abandoned by their owners due to their dilapidation. carpenters, and said to them: "Hurry and without delay prepare the remaining Helandia, and put flamethrowers not only on the bow, but also on the stern, and moreover, even on the sides."

When the Helands were prepared in this way by his order, he put the most experienced men on them and ordered them to move against Igor's ships. Finally they arrived. Seeing them stationed in the sea, King Igor ordered his army not to kill them, but to take them alive. And then the merciful and compassionate Lord, who wished not only to protect those who worship Him, worship and pray to Him, but also to grant them victory, [made it so that] the sea became calm and free from the winds - otherwise the Greeks would be uncomfortable to shoot fire.

So, settling in the middle of the Russian [fleet], they began to throw fire around them. Seeing this, the Russians immediately began to rush from the ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn up in flames. Others, burdened with shells and helmets, went to the bottom and were no longer seen, while some kept afloat burned even in the middle of the sea waves. No one survived that day, except those who escaped to the shore. However, the Russian ships, being small, retreated into shallow water, which the Greek Helandia could not do because of their deep landing. After that Igor went home in great confusion; the victorious Greeks, rejoicing, returned to Constantinople, taking with them many of the surviving [Russian prisoners] whom Roman commanded to behead them all in the presence of my stepfather King Hugo. " (Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona)

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Byzantine ship (IX-XV centuries)

The so-called "Greek fire", which preceded the appearance of gunpowder, found wide application in the army and navy of Byzantium. IN various sources it is claimed that "Greek fire" was invented in the 7th century. This incendiary composition began to be used not only in naval battles, but also in the struggle for fortresses.

Presumably "Greek fire" included saltpeter, sulfur, oil, tar and other substances and was not extinguished by water. In 673, its composition was proposed by the architect Kallinikos from Heliopolis. The Byzantines used "Greek fire" on land and at sea.

In 717, Theophanes in his "Chronography" told about the capture of the Sideron fortress, located in the mountain pass between Tsebelda and Sukhumi. Spafari Leo laid siege to the fortress, but the location and strength of the fortifications did not allow them to seize it. The lion agreed with the defenders of the fortress that they would let him in with 30 soldiers if he promised not to harm them. "But his words, - wrote Theophanes, - Leo did not keep, but ordered his thirty companions:" When we enter, seize the gate, and let everyone enter. " As soon as this happened, Spafari ordered to throw fire into the fortress. A big fire broke out, and families began to go out, taking with them what they could only take from their property. "

In 941, the Kiev prince Igor went on a campaign against the Greeks. The Byzantine Emperor Roman was worried. He sent his troops to meet the Rus, led by Theophanes Patrick. There was a collision. “And of course, - wrote the chronicler, - the Russians won, but the Greeks began to fire with trumpets on the Russian boats. And the fast driving is scary. Russia, seeing the flame on itself, threw itself into the sea water, at least to get rid of it. Then many Russians were burned and drowned with boats by the Greeks ”. The news of this terrible defeat soon reached Rus. “When they came, they told about the former misfortune from the fire; This was probably the first acquaintance of Russians with "Greek fire".

The secret of "Greek fire" became known in the 12th century thanks to the book of Mark the Greek "The Book of Fire Used to Burn Enemies." Apparently, the importance of missile weapons in military affairs has grown so much that a special book was needed to explain how to use them. This was the first textbook for training missilemen. It described in detail how to prepare an incendiary mixture and what to do with it afterwards: “Then, at will, a rocket or thunder is prepared from this. The rocket must be long and the gunpowder must be packed tightly. Thunder, on the other hand, should be short and thick and only half full. At the same time, both ends must be tightly tied with iron wire. " The history of rocket and fire weapons has not yet been fully explored.

The Byzantines considered their dominion in the Mediterranean to be undeniable, even when challenged by pirates, vandals or Goths. However, the rise of Muslim sea power in the second half of the 7th century gave rise to an energetic response in Constantinople. By the beginning of the 8th century, thanks to the invention of the "Greek fire" and the oblique sail, the rule of Byzantium at sea was reaffirmed, which was demonstrated by Leo III the Isaurian during the siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. Although at times questioned, if not threatened, this superiority persisted over the next four centuries. The main base of the Byzantine naval forces was the Kibirata Fema, lying on the southern coast of Anatolia (roughly coinciding with the present-day region of Antalya in Turkey), where a staunch tribe of sailors descended from the pirates of the Roman Republic. Ships and sailors were also supplied by the islands of the Aegean Sea and other maritime regions of Anatolia. Be that as it may, Kibiratida was the only feme whose inhabitants were not subject to recruitment into the land army. But they supported the combat capability of the regular navy, which reached 100 ships, and supplied more than 20 thousand sailors - about half of the personnel of the Byzantine fleet.

In the 7th century, the fleet consisted of relatively small, light and fast galleys, for the most part with two rows of oars (usually 30-40 on each side), two masts and two Latin sails. In addition to rowers trained in hand-to-hand combat, each ship housed a Marine Corps detachment, the full staff of which ranged from 200 to 300 people. Larger ships on the bow and stern had swivel towers with throwing guns mounted at the top. However, the most deadly weapons of these ships (starting from about 670) were the pipes installed on the bow, from where the terrifying and deadly "Greek fire" erupted at the enemy with explosive force.

In the 8th - early 9th century, the Byzantine navy was in decline, but by the end of the 9th century its revival began. It was based in Constantinople, and it was based on several dozen heavy drone - three-deck ships with a crew of 200 people and 70-100 warriors, well protected, with powerful throwing guns and batteries of "Greek fire". Squadrons of tachydromons - well-protected high-speed ships - could deliver sudden, swift strikes, carry out rapid troop transport, carry out patrol and convoy service and carry out reconnaissance.

The history of the Byzantine fleet is a path from glory and power to decline and destruction. The heiress of the Roman Empire, who assimilated its desire to dominate the world, Byzantium for a long time also possessed power over the sea - the Thalassocracy, and its navy was the most formidable force in the Black and Mediterranean Seas.
The main warship of the Byzantines was the dromon, which first appeared around the 5th-6th centuries. n. NS. Its prototype was the Roman bireme - a rowing ship with two rows of oars. The dromon also had two rows of rowers, one above the other. In each row, there were at least 25 cans - benches for rowers. Each paddle was operated by one person. Consequently, there were at least a hundred rowers on the dromon. In addition to them, the ship's crew included the captain, two of his assistants, helmsmen, sailors and soldiers. During the battle, soldiers fired at the enemy with bows from special towers placed on the bow and stern of the ship. Thus, the total number of team members could reach three hundred. Although the main driving force there were rowers, the ship could go under sails: on the dromon there were two masts with Latin - oblique - sails.
Dromon was armed with a ram and catapults. The ram was located exactly at the waterline and, in addition to striking the hull of an enemy ship, could serve as a boarding bridge. The catapults, most likely, were small, but there is evidence that the most powerful of them could throw a load of 500 kg at a distance of up to 1000 m. In addition, the dromons were equipped with perhaps the most terrifying weapon of the Middle Ages - "Greek fire". This infernal mixture consisted of saltpeter, crushed sulfur, resin, oil and vegetable (olive) oil. However, the exact recipe for its preparation is not known, because, firstly, since its inception in the 7th century. its composition did not remain unchanged, and, secondly, because the Byzantines guarded the secret of its compilation as the strictest state secret. According to the chroniclers, "Greek fire" incinerated iron and stones, burned on the water and destroyed all living things. It was possible to extinguish it only with wine, vinegar or sand. This mixture was used to start clay balls, which were thrown from special copper pipes. These pipes were built into the mouths of dragons, lions and other monsters that adorned the prows of Greek ships. Such flamethrowers were called siphonophores. Clay balls burst on impact on a hard surface or, in the event of an unsuccessful shot, in the air. By the way, the Byzantines destroyed in 941 the huge Russian fleet that had arrived at the walls of Constantinople under the leadership of Prince Igor. According to legend, about 10 thousand boats took part in the campaign, most of which were burned.
Before the battle, the dromons lined up, however, keeping their distance so as not to break the oars. At a large number ships at the distance of the arrow's flight, a second line was installed, followed by a third.
The dimensions of the dromon ranged from 30 to 50 m in length and from 6 to 7 m in width. The small, light dromon was called panfil ("everyone's favorite"). Its length could reach 20 m. There were also other types of ships: galea ("sword-fish"), helandium, elura - much less is known about them.
The Byzantine fleet did not know defeat until in the VII century. the Arabs did not appear in the Mediterranean, then, in the 11th century, the Normans, and, finally, the Italian maritime republics did not loudly declare themselves. The sea power of Byzantium began to weaken from the XI century. Italian merchants from Genoa, Venice, Pisa gradually took over the Byzantine trade. Finally, in 1204, the empire suffered a severe blow from which it never fully recovered: the crusaders took possession of Constantinople. In place of Byzantium, a weak and short-lived Latin Empire (1204-1261) arose, completely incapable of establishing effective control over sea routes. Not surprisingly, during this time, the Eastern Mediterranean became a hotbed of piracy. Sea bums of all sorts always sense where they are not able to fight back, but there is something to profit from.
The most effective of the repeated attempts to revive the Greek fleet was made by Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259-1282), the restorer of the Byzantine Empire, who in 1261 returned Constantinople under his rule. The Byzantines cleverly solved the recruitment problem by recruiting numerous Aegean pirates into the fleet. However, independent sea robbers began to be severely persecuted. The emperor himself boastfully declared in his autobiography: “We drove away the pirate fleet that was in charge of the sea, attacking the triirs in the Aegean Sea, which they (the pirates) had brought here several years before, and with that, on the one hand, we liberated the island from the tyranny, those under their tyranny, on the other hand, ensured safety for those sailing on the sea. Even if Michael VIII somewhat exaggerated his merits, all the same, the Byzantine fleet for a short time regained its former strength: in 1275 it numbered at least 80 ships. IN last time Byzantium had real power over the sea. The last time the Aegean was truly Byzantine. The last time, because the success turned out to be fragile and short-lived. Byzantine era relentlessly declining. Already in 1285, the son of Michael VIII Andronicus II (1282-1328) ordered to dissolve the fleet, because its maintenance required a lot of money, and the treasury was empty. That is why the court flatterers fell the advice that pleased the emperor: to abandon the cost of ships. “It's a well-known thing,” laments the Byzantine historian Nikifor Grigora, “subordinates, for the most part, like to conform to the will of their bosses and to it, as to direct their thought, language and every action to some goal. And by this they easily gain the favor of their superiors. The advice was this: disasters, it was said, because of which the Romans brought their triirs to a large figure, they all went through, therefore it would be in vain to spend on ships, which, almost more than all other items, drain the royal treasury. "
However, the miser pays twice, and the emperor had to pay dearly for his stinginess. The Byzantine sailors who remained out of work scattered in all directions: some took up crafts and agriculture, others were hired by the Latins, and still others returned to their original occupation - sea robbery. While the abandoned Byzantine ships rotted in the harbors, pirates of all kinds ravaged the islands and coastlines of the empire. The maritime trade was almost completely monopolized by the Venetians and Genoese.
Another effort to recreate the navy was made by the emperor John Cantacuzin (1341-1354), but it ended in disaster. At first, the ships still at the shipyard were burned by the Genoese, against whom it was mainly planned to use weapons. When at last, namely in 1348, the imperial fleet was built and ready to go to sea, and the population of Constantinople gathered on the city walls to witness the triumph of this new fleet with their own eyes, a strong wind suddenly blew. One of the ships, the largest and most unstable, capsized, and the rest of the ships were thrown in panic by their crews ...
There is, however, an interesting evidence of the Russian traveler Stephen Novgorodets, who visited Constantinople in about 1348 or 1349. “If from the Hippodrome we go past Kandoskamia,” he writes, “then there are city gates, iron, latticed, very large. These gates lead the sea into the interior of the city. When there is an attack by troops from the sea, sailing ships and rowing katargas (i.e. galleys) up to three hundred are kept here. On the katarga there are two hundred oars, and on others there are three hundred, on these ships the army always walks on the sea. Whatever the wind, they paddle. And the ships, sailing ships, are standing, waiting for the weather. " Three hundred ships ?! True, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the medieval worldview. If the harbor could accommodate such a number of ships, this does not mean that they were there ...
By the time of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, the Byzantines no longer had their own fleet at all and were virtually defenseless against the formidable enemy.

Reviews

The term "ship" means that these were not necessarily multi-deck giants. These were both small feluccas and small schooners. But here's an interesting article.
But do you have your own, personal, opinions about why the crusaders captured Byzantium? And then I'm just collecting materials on this time ...

The history of the Byzantine fleet is a path from glory and power to decline and destruction. The heiress of the Roman Empire, who assimilated its desire to dominate the world, Byzantium for a long time also possessed power over the sea - the Thalassocracy, and its navy was the most formidable force in the Black and Mediterranean Seas.

The main warship of the Byzantines was the dromon, which first appeared around the 5th-6th centuries. n. NS. Its prototype was the Roman bireme - a rowing ship with two rows of oars. The dromon also had two rows of rowers, one above the other. In each row, there were at least 25 cans - benches for rowers. Each paddle was operated by one person. Consequently, there were at least a hundred rowers on the dromon. In addition to them, the ship's crew included the captain, two of his assistants, helmsmen, sailors and soldiers. During the battle, soldiers fired at the enemy with bows from special towers placed on the bow and stern of the ship. Thus, the total number of team members could reach three hundred. Although the main driving force was rowers, the ship could go under sails: the dromon had two masts with Latin - oblique - sails.

Dromon was armed with a ram and catapults. The ram was located exactly at the waterline and, in addition to striking the hull of an enemy ship, could serve as a boarding bridge. The catapults were most likely small, but there is evidence that the most powerful of them could throw a load of 500 kg at a distance of up to 1000 m. In addition, the dromons were equipped with perhaps the most terrifying weapon of the Middle Ages - "Greek fire". This infernal mixture consisted of saltpeter, crushed sulfur, resin, oil and vegetable (olive) oil. However, the exact recipe for its preparation is not known, because, firstly, since its inception in the 7th century. its composition did not remain unchanged, and, secondly, because the Byzantines guarded the secret of its compilation as the strictest state secret. According to the chroniclers, "Greek fire" incinerated iron and stones, burned on the water and destroyed all living things. It was possible to extinguish it only with wine, vinegar or sand. This mixture was used to start clay balls, which were thrown from special copper pipes. These pipes were built into the mouths of dragons, lions and other monsters that adorned the prows of Greek ships. Such flamethrowers were called siphonophores. Clay balls burst on impact on a hard surface or, in the event of an unsuccessful shot, in the air. By the way, the Byzantines destroyed in 941 the huge Russian fleet that had arrived at the walls of Constantinople under the leadership of Prince Igor. According to legend, about 10 thousand boats took part in the campaign, most of which were burned.

Before the battle, the dromons lined up, however, keeping their distance so as not to break the oars. With a large number of ships, a second line was installed at an arrow flight distance, followed by a third.

The dimensions of the dromon ranged from 30 to 50 m in length and from 6 to 7 m in width. The small, light dromon was called panfil ("everyone's favorite"). Its length could reach 20 m. There were also other types of ships: galea ("sword-fish"), helandium, elura - much less is known about them.

The Byzantine fleet did not know defeat until in the VII century. the Arabs did not appear in the Mediterranean, then, in the 11th century, the Normans, and, finally, the Italian maritime republics did not loudly declare themselves. The sea power of Byzantium began to weaken from the XI century. Italian merchants from Genoa, Venice, Pisa gradually took over the Byzantine trade. Finally, in 1204, the empire suffered a severe blow from which it never fully recovered: the crusaders took possession of Constantinople. In place of Byzantium, a weak and short-lived Latin Empire (1204-1261) arose, completely incapable of establishing effective control over sea routes. Not surprisingly, during this time, the Eastern Mediterranean became a hotbed of piracy. Sea bums of all sorts always sense where they are not able to fight back, but there is something to profit from.

The most effective of the repeated attempts to revive the Greek fleet was made by Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259-1282), the restorer of the Byzantine Empire, who in 1261 returned Constantinople under his rule. The Byzantines cleverly solved the recruitment problem by recruiting numerous Aegean pirates into the fleet. However, independent sea robbers began to be severely persecuted. The emperor himself boastfully declared in his autobiography: “We drove away the pirate fleet that was in charge of the sea, attacking the triirs in the Aegean Sea, which they (the pirates) had brought here several years before, and with that, on the one hand, we liberated the island from the tyranny, those under their tyranny, on the other hand, ensured safety for those sailing on the sea. Even if Michael VIII somewhat exaggerated his merits, all the same, the Byzantine fleet for a short time regained its former strength: in 1275 it numbered at least 80 ships. For the last time, Byzantium had real power over the sea. The last time the Aegean was truly Byzantine. The last time, because the success turned out to be fragile and short-lived. The Byzantine era was relentlessly declining. Already in 1285, the son of Michael VIII Andronicus II (1282-1328) ordered to dissolve the fleet, because its maintenance required a lot of money, and the treasury was empty. That is why the court flatterers fell the advice that pleased the emperor: to abandon the cost of ships. “It is a well-known thing,” laments the Byzantine historian Nikifor Grigora, “subordinates for the most part like to conform to the will of their bosses and to it, as to direct their thought, language and every action to some goal. And by this they easily gain the favor of their superiors. The advice was this: disasters, it was said, because of which the Romans brought their triirs to a large figure, they all went through, therefore it would be in vain to spend on ships, which, almost more than all other items, drain the royal treasury. "

However, the miser pays twice, and the emperor had to pay dearly for his stinginess. The Byzantine sailors who remained out of work scattered in all directions: some took up crafts and agriculture, others were hired by the Latins, and still others returned to their original occupation - sea robbery. While the abandoned Byzantine ships rotted in the harbors, pirates of all kinds ravaged the islands and coastlines of the empire. The maritime trade was almost completely monopolized by the Venetians and Genoese.

Another effort to recreate the navy was made by the emperor John Cantacuzin (1341-1354), but it ended in disaster. At first, the ships still at the shipyard were burned by the Genoese, against whom it was mainly planned to use weapons. When at last, namely in 1348, the imperial fleet was built and ready to go to sea, and the population of Constantinople gathered on the city walls to witness the triumph of this new fleet with their own eyes, a strong wind suddenly blew. One of the ships, the largest and most unstable, capsized, and the rest of the ships were thrown in panic by their crews ...

There is, however, an interesting evidence of the Russian traveler Stephen Novgorodets, who visited Constantinople in about 1348 or 1349. “If from the Hippodrome we go past Kandoskamia,” he writes, “then there are city gates, iron, latticed, very large. These gates lead the sea into the interior of the city. When there is an attack by troops from the sea, sailing ships and rowing katargas (i.e. galleys) up to three hundred are kept here. On the katarga there are two hundred oars, and on others there are three hundred, on these ships the army always walks on the sea. Whatever the wind, they paddle. And the ships, sailing ships, are standing, waiting for the weather. " Three hundred ships ?! True, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the medieval worldview. If the harbor could accommodate such a number of ships, this does not mean that they were there ...

By the time of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, the Byzantines no longer had their own fleet at all and were virtually defenseless against the formidable enemy.

In agricultural machinery, a wheelless plow was preserved, threshing with the help of bulls and donkeys harnessed to wooden sleds. Agriculture was two-field, viticulture, horticulture and olive cultivation played an important role. Artificial irrigation was used. Manual or livestock-driven mill from the 11th century. displaced by water; the windmill appears later. In the 10th century. Attempts were made in the monastery economy to use a "machine" driven by bulls for kneading dough. (3) The rise of the craft was noticeable from the middle of the 9th century. in the capital, from the 10th century. - in the province. Ancient recipes for the manufacture of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints for which Byzantium was famous were preserved here. (4) Automatic mechanisms, as in ancient times, were made only for amusement. In jewelry and silk-weaving production, Byzantium until the end of the 12th century. ranked first in Europe; in shipbuilding - initially it overtook Western Europe (from the 9th century an oblique sail was used). (3)

Byzantine fleet

The main ship of the Byzantine fleet until the 12th century was the dromon, which appeared as a result of the evolution of the Roman bireme and liburn, which formed the basis of the ancient Roman fleet. The term was first mentioned in the Ravenna papyri at the end of the 5th century and was used to refer to a certain type of military galley in the 6th century. In the 6th century, such authors as Procopius noted the high speed of these ships, although, according to A. Zorich, “the dromon was hardly faster than similar galleys in the Eastern Mediterranean”. And he adds: "It is believed that the return to such modest ships of the Byzantines was forced by the desire for cheapness and ease of maintenance of their fleet, which at that moment had no worthy opponents." Over the next several centuries, as a result of the intensification of the naval confrontation with the Arabs, heavier versions of the dromon appeared with two or even three rows of oars. The main changes in the design of ships are the introduction of a solid deck (catastroma), the abandonment of rams on the bow in favor of a surface ledge, and the gradual introduction of a Latin sail. The previously used spike and groove technique did not give the hulls sufficient strength, and the use of a ram against ships was quite effective. The frame method that replaced it gave the hull greater strength and flexibility and made the use of a ram against such ships ineffective. (5)

Dromon was a 50-rowed ship with 25 oars on each side (Fig. 1). Unlike ancient Greek ships, on which outriggers were used to attach the oars, in this case the oars were attached directly to the hull of the ship. In the later biremes of the 9th and 10th centuries, two rows of cans were separated by a ship. The first row was below deck, while the second row was on deck, and the rowers of this row had to fight alongside the Marines in boarding skirmishes. Makripoulias suggests that the 120 rowers' dromon carried 25 rowers below deck and 35 on deck on each side. The total length of such ships was probably about 32 meters. The ship was controlled by two rudders located at the stern, where, in addition, there was a canopy that covered the captain's place. There was a high tank on the bow of the ship, below which there was a siphon for the use of Greek fire, although additional siphons could be installed in the middle of the ship from both sides. There was a fence along the sides of the ship, on which the Marines could hang their shields, providing protection to the crew. Large ships, in addition, also had fortified wooden superstructures on either side between the masts, similar to those found on the ancient Roman liburns, which allowed archers to fire from a high platform. The arrow located on the bow of the ship was designed to strike the oars of enemy ships - breaking them, it made the enemy ship helpless against Greek fire and boarding attacks. (5)

Judging by the descriptions of the Cretan expeditions of 911 and 949, in the X century there were three main classes of bireme (ships with two rows of oars) and the dromon itself. Smaller ships with a single row of oars, moneras or galleys (from which the term galley is derived) were used for reconnaissance missions and on the flanks of the front line. Three-tiered ("trireme") dromons are described in the 9th century. (5)

For the transport of goods, the Byzantines, as a rule, seized ordinary merchant ships and used them as cargo transport ships. Apparently, for the most part they were sailing, not rowing ships. The Byzantines and Arabs also used special transport ships to transport horses. They were sailing ships or galleys, the latter, of course, were specially converted to accommodate horses. While the dromon was designed exclusively as a warship, the helandion had a dedicated horse compartment in the middle of the ship. In addition, Byzantine sources mention a sandal or sandalion - a boat that was pulled by bombing ships. This type of boat is mastless, with four oars and a rudder. (five)

In Byzantium, "Greek fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water. Actually "Greek fire" was invented in 673 by an engineer and architect, who, apparently, designed a special throwing device - "siphon" - for throwing incendiary mixture. Kallinikos fled to Byzantium and there offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the struggle against the Arabs. Presumably, the maximum range of the siphons was 25-30 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the navy, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of that time. In addition, according to the testimony of contemporaries, nothing could extinguish the Greek fire, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. For the first time, Greek fire siphons were installed on Byzantine dromons. (five)

If on land the troops of the Byzantines were defeated by the Arabs, then at sea the "Greek fire" gave superiority to the Byzantine fleet over the enemy. Thanks to him, a major naval victory over the Arabs was won in 718. In 941, the Byzantines with the help of "Greek fire" defeated the fleet of Prince Igor Rurikovich that had approached Constantinople. (6.S.288) During the struggle for the Bulgarian fortress Dorostol on the Danube, the Byzantines blocked the actions of Svyatoslav's fleet with the help of fire-carrying ships. This is how Leo the Deacon describes this episode: “Meanwhile, the fire-carrying triremes and food ships of the Romans appeared floating on Istria. heard from the old people of their people that by this very "Median fire" the Romans had turned into ashes on the Euxine Sea the huge fleet of Ingor, Sfendoslav's father. sides of Doristol. But the fire-carrying ships lay in wait for the Scythians from all sides, so that they could not escape on boats to their land. " (7)

The Byzantines also used Greek "fire" in the defense of fortresses. So, on one of the miniatures of the "Chronicle" of Georgy Amartol from the Tver list (early 14th century), kept in the Moscow State Library named after V.I. 2). (7)

The exact composition of Greek fire is unknown. The most likely ingredients were quicklime, sulfur, and crude oil or asphalt. Also, the composition could include calcium phosphide, which, upon contact with water, releases phosphine gas, which ignites spontaneously in air. Greek fire was more of a psychological weapon: fearing it, enemy ships tried to keep their distance from the Byzantine ships. A siphon with Greek fire was installed, as a rule, on the bow or stern of the ship. Sometimes the fiery mixture was thrown onto enemy ships in barrels: there are references to the fact that as a result of careless handling of Greek fire, Byzantine ships often caught fire. (8)

Until the XII century. the economic superiority of Byzantium over other European countries was indisputable. The invention of the Greek fire and oblique sail ensured the naval successes of the empire, and the flourishing of construction technology, the achievements of the exact and natural sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy and medicine, helped Byzantium to overtake many states of the East and West in its development. (nine)