Showforum architecture and painting of Byzantium. Byzantine architecture and painting

Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Interior.

In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into two independent states: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The Eastern Empire was later called Byzantium, after the old Greek name for its capital Constantinople - Byzantium (now Istanbul). In the 6th century, under Emperor Justinian, it occupied a vast territory (even Italy was briefly conquered) and was a majestic and brilliant country, with a complex apparatus public administration and highly developed diplomacy. The imposing appearance of Constantinople, its mighty fleet, magnificent architectural structures, and the dazzling pomp of court ceremonial and church services were irresistible. Greece also went to Byzantium, so the Eastern Empire preserved and continued Greek traditions in art. Byzantium was a Christian country with Orthodox Church. Over its thousand-year history, Byzantium experienced periods of rise and decline. Different times He also knew Byzantine art.

Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (Constantinople)

Its first heyday occurred in the 6th century, when Emperor Justinian I reigned. Then a magnificent monument of Byzantine architecture was erected - the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Huge and beautiful, it is remarkable because here a round dome crowns a rectangular space - previously they only knew how to cover buildings that were round in plan with domes. From the outside the temple does not seem as big as from the inside, where it amazes those who enter with its spaciousness, the airiness of a gigantic (30 meters in diameter), as if soaring dome. The central dome of Sofia is supported on two sides by two lower semi-domes, and these in turn each have two more small semi-domes. In the space under the dome stood a decorated precious stones pulpit, where services were held.

Hagia Sophia

The cathedral remained the highest achievement of Byzantine architecture - nothing equal to it was created in the history of Byzantium. During Turkish rule, tall minarets were added to the church, which greatly changed the appearance of Hagia Sophia.

Hagia Sophia

People in Byzantine sacred images are presented as stern, their figures are elongated, flat and seemingly incorporeal. On semi-dark vaults, even light colors, especially purple, black and gold, create a solemn, but somewhat gloomy mood. Byzantine masters paid a lot of attention to painting - these are miniatures in church books and sacred paintings-icons. In countries where they practice Orthodox faith, icon painting still follows Byzantine traditions.

Mosaic. Church of San Vitale

During the time of Justinian, many churches were also built in Italy, especially in the port city of Ravenna. The octagonal church of San Vitale is famous, the walls of which are almost entirely covered with mosaics. In addition to biblical events, in these mosaics you can see Justinian himself and his wife, Empress Theodora, with her retinue. The mosaic technique is complex and requires great skill. Small multi-colored cubes of smalt (an alloy of glass with mineral paints), from which the image is laid out on the wall, flicker, flash, shimmer, reflecting light. Time has almost no power over the mosaic of ancient masters: when it is cleaned of old dust and soot, it turns out to be just as radiant and sonorous in color as it was many centuries ago. Ravenna is famous for this. that here, in a rough, thick-walled mausoleum, lie the ashes of Theodoric, the first Ostrogothic king. Dante is buried here: at the end of his life he found refuge in Ravenna and graduated from The Divine Comedy here. Blok dedicated his poems to the fading city of Ravenna:
Everything that is momentary, everything that is perishable, you buried in the centuries.
You sleep like a baby, Ravenna, with sleepy eternity in your hands.

Church of San Vitale

The period of iconoclasm continued in Byzantium for more than a hundred years. Iconoclasts rebelled against depicting God and saints in human form, seeing this as a relic of idolatry. Many icons were destroyed. And yet, icon veneration was restored. However, the style of Byzantine art by that time had become very strict and canonical. It was Byzantium that developed and strictly adhered to prototypes in iconography, which later passed into Russian iconography. All spiritual life in Byzantium took place under strict control, rejecting everything liberal, and this could not but leave its mark on all Byzantine art.

Church of San Vitale, dome painting

In 1453, the Turks conquered Byzantium, but Byzantine art continued to live in art Ancient Rus'. Rus' inherited from Byzantium, along with Christianity, the types of temples and icons. Russian masters further developed both its architecture and painting. First-class Byzantine craftsmen worked in Kyiv, Novgorod, and Vladimir

Interior decoration

Unlike the ancient style, the Byzantine style of ancient buildings perhaps had too much showmanship and, at the same time, this style was considered deeply religious. Having created the Byzantine style, the ancient masters created a certain artistic principle in which unearthly, divine beauty predominates, overthrowing the beauty of the surrounding existence.

In the way the Byzantines moved almost all the decoration inside the building, one can see a tendency to withdraw into oneself, almost the Eastern primacy of internal life over external life. It was then that the first great experience of the meaningful use of decorative elements was gained.

This system of structurally specified decoration is formed by four main components:

1. mosaics or frescoes painted in tempera. Ancient craftsmen preferred to insert mosaic elements into arches, inside domes, and often used curved wall surfaces to apply mosaics;
2. various marble facings, columns, carved capitals, carved or inlaid friezes, panels, etc.;
3. architectural forms that have their own plastic expressiveness, to which the first two moments are subordinated;
4. carefully controlled use of light as an active element in creating the overall decorative effect.

All four decorative elements are so closely interconnected that analyzing each of them separately cannot give an overall picture. The floors were covered with marble slabs that formed geometric patterns. The lower part of the interior walls was often faced with thin slabs of multi-colored marble, sawn to reveal the rich texture of the material. Rows of these slabs alternated with blocks of marble of a different color, flat or carved, so that everything together formed a single whole. Sometimes inserted carved panels were used, on which linearly stylized ornaments were depicted using the bas-relief technique, for example grape vines and peacocks. Marble-clad walls were separated from curved or vaulted surfaces, usually along the line where the vaults meet the wall, by marble profiled belts, cornices or friezes - flat, molded, carved or inlaid. These surfaces were reserved for the placement of mosaics, and in a later period, mosaics were replaced by tempera.

Mosaics were made from small pieces of smalt - colored glass with chipped edges that enhanced the refraction of light. Gold and silver mosaic stones were made by fusing thin sheets of precious metal between two glasses. The sizes of the smalt pieces varied, and the surface of the image was deliberately made slightly uneven so that the light would be reflected from different points at different angles.

When preparing the surface for the mosaic, a first layer of relatively coarse-grained plaster was applied to it, and a second layer with a finer grain was applied over it. When the second layer dried, a design was scratched across it, after which that part of the surface that was immediately supposed to be covered with mosaics was covered with a layer of a special solution. Pieces of smalt were pressed into it, following the lines of the scratched pattern.

The background of the mosaic was usually filled with pieces of sparkling gold smalt, between which silver inserts were made here and there. In early mosaics the background was sometimes green or blue. Visual motifs (biblical scenes, saints, figures of emperors and their entourage, symbols, floral patterns and borders) were placed in the middle, in the most spectacular places.

The frescoes are emphatically symbolic. Images of people have lost their inherent Roman fine arts realism. Since the basis of the Byzantine style and culture was the Christian religion, it is not the physical beauty and attractiveness of the body that comes to the fore, but the beauty of the soul. Thus, in the depiction of a person, the emphasis is on the eyes as the “mirror of the soul,” while the flesh ceases to look realistic due to the fact that the masters deliberately avoided the use of pictorial elements to give it volume.

The most striking examples of this art include the mosaics of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, the monasteries of St. Luke in Phocis (1st half of the 11th century), Daphne near Athens (11th century), Chora in Constantinople (early 14th century), San Marco Cathedral in Venice (11th–15th centuries), as well as numerous fragments in other places.

Construction material

In the Byzantine Empire, the favorite building material was plinth, a large and flat baked brick measuring about 35.5x35.5x5.1 cm.

IN eastern regions Empire, rich in limestone and tuff quarries, used hewn stone masonry with mortar (Syria, Transcaucasia). Lime was used in the mortar, to which finely ground brick - cementum - was mixed to give the mortar greater strength and hydraulic resistance. In the walls, the mortar was laid in horizontal layers several centimeters thick. Sometimes mixed masonry was used: 3-5 rows of plinth laid on a thick layer of mortar alternated with several layers of cut stone. The outer surface of the walls was usually not plastered. Quick-setting cement mortar made it possible to erect vaults and domes. To reinforce the structure or enhance the decorative effect, three or four rows of brickwork were often interspersed with a row of cut stone or marble.

When constructing the domes, the masonry was carried out in separate rings with inclined rows of bricks. Continuing building traditions Eastern regions of the empire and neighboring countries, the design of Byzantine brick vaults differs sharply from the design of Roman vaults built on wooden circles. To lighten the weight, porous stones, in particular pumice, were introduced into the masonry of the vaults. A solution of special viscosity made it possible, after laying a row, not to wait for final setting and hardening, but to begin laying the next one on it. As a result, the lateral thrust was significantly reduced and after construction was completed, the dome acquired the character of a monolith. Domes and vaults were covered with tiles or lead sheets.

In the eastern regions of the empire, where natural stone predominated in the masonry, vaults and domes were erected in circles. Along with hewn stone, rubble stone with mortar was used. Tension rings made of oak beams or strip iron were placed in the domes.

Architectural details such as columns, capitals, inset panels, grilles, wall cladding, and floors were made from different types of marble and porphyry. The capitals were covered with gilding. The bases were made of profiled white marble, contrasting with the rich colors of the column trunks, which were covered with colored marble or porphyry (often in red, blue or green tones). All vaults, as well as top part The walls, as a rule, were covered with luxurious colored mosaics made of valuable smalt glass cubes, carefully fixed in a layer of specially prepared mortar. The most important accessories of the temple are the altar altar, the iconostasis (altar barrier), the pulpit (pulpit) and the baptismal font. They vary in the richness of their execution, but in most cases they were made of simple, inlaid or carved marble. Sometimes the listed items were particularly luxurious, for example, in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, where one could see a golden tympanum decorated with precious stones and enamel above the altar or a sculpted silver iconostasis, as reported by ancient sources.

Architectural elements

Byzantine architects abandoned the classical orders, and instead developed column supports, capitals, cornices, friezes and architectural profiles. Unlike classical examples, in Byzantine works the heels of raised arches were often placed directly on the capitals. To give this new practice The architects reworked the shape of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals: in order to increase constructiveness, they made them more compact and integral, reducing the size of the projections and insets. In addition, between the fifth arch and the capital, they introduced an additional powerful trapezoidal block, designed to transfer the load from the wider arch, the thin capital and the column trunk. By combining this block and capital into one functional form, the architects created the so-called. cushion-shaped capital (pulvan or pulvino), which was distinguished by great expressiveness and a variety of options.

Unlike Roman temples, the column here is not one of the main decorations of the entire room, along with the frescoes, but only a modest addition to the main decorative elements - the walls and dome, so richly decorated with fresco paintings, colored glass mosaics, bright tiles, marble, gold, silver that they take all the attention. Columns were used as auxiliary elements, for example in arcades connecting supporting pillars. The combination of a pillar, arch, vault and dome is a design feature of the “arched” style. The feet of the arches rested not directly on the capitals of the columns, but on intermediate elements laid on them - pillows, the so-called pulvans, similar to a cube with side edges beveled downwards, also decorated with ornaments.

Windows, usually made in the form of a vertical high arch, can also be considered a characteristic feature of the Byzantine style. The use of colored glass mosaics on such windows can also be classified as one of characteristic elements Byzantine style. Window openings are most often topped with an arch (or arches) and equipped with gratings or stone slabs with large openings. Doors were often made of bronze, decorated with applied reliefs, ornamental rosettes and borders, which gave them massiveness.

The result is an impression of power and strength, as opposed to floating lightness gothic cathedral, whose flying buttresses and entire stained glass “walls” are so sharply different from the solid, impenetrable walls of Byzantine temples made of a combination of brick and stone (or completely stone - where there was plenty of building stone).

In the early stages of Byzantine architecture, little external decoration was used, and domes were usually built low, merging with the volume of the building. Later, the dome was often mounted on a drum with windows around the perimeter, but windows could also cut through the base of the dome itself. Later, taller temples were built, the verticality in them became stronger, more decorations appeared on the outside - patterned brickwork, marble cladding, blind and through arcades, pilasters, groups of complex windows, niches, profiled belts and cornices. In later buildings, smaller in size, but superior in the skill of plastic and rhythmic development of the project, protruding porticoes and attached aisles are not uncommon.

The most important contribution of Byzantium to the history of world architecture is the development of domed compositions of churches, expressed in the emergence of new types of structures - the domed basilica, the centric church with a dome on eight supports and the cross-domed system. The development of the first two types falls into the early Byzantine period. The cross-domed system of temples became widespread during the period of Middle Byzantine architecture. To support the dome on a square base, an oriental technique was often used - trompe. Cross vaults, widely used in Byzantium, most often had a flared shape, which appeared as a result of the abandonment of the elliptical outline of the diagonal ribs of a conventional vault and the transition to a simpler semi-circular outline, easily outlined using a box. The next step in the evolution of the vault was the abandonment of the diagonal ribs and the transformation of the flared vault into a sailing vault. This is a system of supporting the dome on four separate supports using a sail vault. At first the dome rested directly on the sails and girth arches; Later, between the dome and the supporting structure, they began to build a cylindrical volume - a drum, in the walls of which openings were left to illuminate the space under the dome. The dome rose above the massive volume of the church itself, which ends on the eastern side with one or more apses topped with semi-domes and has on the sides vaulted naves in one or two tiers.

This structural system made it possible to free the interior of buildings from bulky walls and further expand the internal space. The same idea of ​​spatiality of the interior was served by the technique of supporting the girth arches with semi-domes, creating together with the dome a single space, sometimes reaching very large sizes. Mutual balancing of vaults is one of the outstanding achievements of Byzantine architecture. Usage spatial forms, which due to their geometric structure are rigid and stable, made it possible to reduce the massiveness of supporting structures to a minimum, rationally distribute building materials in them, and obtain significant savings in labor and material costs. Among the vaulted forms made of stone, it is worth noting closed and cross vaults, as well as arches and vaults with a pointed outline that appeared in Syria and Transcaucasia.

Building types

There are five main types of Byzantine churches.

Basilica

In the era of early Christianity, basilicas had a high central nave that could accommodate a significant number of parishioners. In the apse there was an altar and everything necessary for the celebration of the liturgy. In the side naves - in large basilicas there were four of them - the flock gathered, relics were kept there, and various rituals were performed, for example, the rite of baptism. The central nave, the height of which exceeded the height of the side naves, was illuminated by upper windows. The walls were built of stone, and the ceilings were wooden. The naves were separated from each other by rows of columns. We entered the temple through the atrium and narthex. This simple design became the basis of temple architecture in Europe. In the early Christian era, the floor of the temple was decorated with patterns laid out from stones. The columns are most often of the Corinthian, sometimes Ionic, order. Temples were built mainly from stone, sometimes colored marble was used. The walls above the colonnade were painted, and the conch above the apse had frescoes or mosaics. When constructing temples, columns from Roman temples were often used. Thus, the Roman style was included in the architecture of Christian basilicas. However, unlike Roman basilicas, here the side naves had a second tier (a gallery for women, or ginaikonit), and the apse became emphatically polygonal on the outside.

The grandiose temples of San Paulo Fuori le Mura (386 AD) and Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, despite the reconstruction of subsequent eras, are examples of early Christian basilicas. The appearance of the more modestly sized churches of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome (772-795) or Sant'Apollinare in Classe (c. 500) in Ravenna did not change so radically. In the church of Santa Maria in Cozmedin, in the western part of the temple there are choirs - an element that gradually became an important part of the temple. Great value For the development of Byzantine architecture, basilicas were built in the eastern regions - in Syria, Asia Minor, and Transcaucasia.

The basilica variety of the church appeared in Constantinople quite early, as evidenced by the descriptions of the original temple on the site of the Cathedral of St. Sofia, and the Church of St. John the Baptist, preserved in the Studite Monastery, the construction of which began in 463. It should be noted that in terms of design features, these are most likely works of the early Christian Roman school, since this type was not used in the capital later than the 5th century.

Unlike the region of Constantinople, in Greece itself the basilica type continued to be used for a long time - both in simplified and in more developed forms, with the use of barrel vaults in the main and side naves and with small service spaces (sacristy and deaconry) on the sides of the apse. Examples include the Church of St. Philip in Athens (only the foundation has survived) and the church in Kalambaka (both 6th century, with wooden rafters as ceilings), St. Anargyra and St. Stephen in Kastoria (both 11th century, with barrel vaults) and the Cathedral of St. Sofia in Ohrid, Macedonia (founded in the 9th century, rebuilt c. 1037–1050) with barrel vaults and three apses on the east side.

Simple centric type

The domed structures that developed in these areas (the church in Esra 515, the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa in Mesopotamia, 569-586) also had a great influence on the development of Byzantine centric buildings. Of particular importance is the dome on four or eight supports. An early example of this type in Syria is the church at Bosra (513), in which the dome rested on four pillars. In the center was a font, altar or tomb. The Church of Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople (527) is a centric composition on eight abutments, the basis of which is a highly developed under-dome space. The stepped structure and rich plasticity are formed mainly by structural elements: the dome, semicircular arches, diagonal exedra, abutments, arches on columns, etc. The church has similarities with the Minerva Medica and San Stefano Rotondo in Rome, as well as with the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem (consecrated in 335). The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna (526–547), with its apse and seven exedra radiating from the center, played a significant role in the development of the predominantly domed character of Byzantine architecture, although neither in it nor in the Church of St. Sergius and Bacchus did not use sails. In both churches, semi-domes were used to compensate for the expansion of the main dome, which contributed to the subsequent widespread use of this design principle in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople and in later buildings with a quatrefoil plan (quadrifolium). According to Choisy, the domed octagonal church of St. Sergius and Bacchus influenced the type of monastic churches, examples of which are the church in the monastery of Daphne near Athens or in the monastery of St. Luke in Phocis, Greece (both 11th century). A centric layout with radial symmetry was used in many Christian churches; but preference is given to the basilica with its mirror symmetry.

Cross-dome type

Although recognized as a Byzantine type, cross-domed churches nevertheless did not become widespread. They are characterized by a clear cruciform plan formed by a nave and a wide transept crossing it. The Middle Cross and all four branches of the cross are topped with domes, which rest on pillars standing in groups, between which there are side naves (San Marco Cathedral in Venice). Thus, in the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice (X-XI centuries) there are five domes on sails. In plan, the cathedral is an equilateral Greek cross. The pre-altar barrier and mosaics have been preserved inside. In all likelihood, the interior of this Byzantine temple is the best preserved.

The interior and exterior of temples of this type are distinguished by their special plastic beauty. They can be easily expanded laterally and in depth without losing organic unity, so that in this sense they represent the only serious departure from the Byzantine concept of the temple, which proceeded from a closed structure with a fixed volume. Since the reverse corners of the cross remain unfilled, the thrust of the dome is poorly balanced. There are references to a church of this type in Gaza (destroyed in 402). An example of a building of the same type was the famous Church of St. Apostles in Constantinople, as it was expanded by Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. It served as a prototype for the rebuilding of San Marco, which remains an outstanding example of a Byzantine cruciform domed church that has survived to this day. His influence is felt in a number of Romanesque churches, for example in the cathedral in Périgueux (France).

Square dome type

Used mainly in small churches, this type was widespread. Its distinctive features: a cross inscribed in a square in plan and five domes, one above the middle cross and four at the opposite corners of the cross. Accordingly, the vertically growing masses are placed in a completely different way than in a cross-domed church and the effects of symmetry of forms relative to the vertical and horizontal axes of the plan are shown. Undoubtedly this scheme developed from the domed basilica type.

First famous example This type is the Church of Nea in Constantinople. Other examples: the Church of Our Lady Deaconess (9th century) and St. Peter and Mark (9th century), both in Constantinople, small church of the monastery of St. Luke in Phocis (11th century), church of St. Fedora in Constantinople (12th century) and a church in the town of Feredzhik in Macedonia (13th century). Among the many variants of this type, there are complex ones with a three-lobed completion on the eastern side, as, for example, in several monastery churches on Mount Athos (Vatopedi, 11th century, and Hilandar, 13th century).

Type of domed basilica

Its main feature is the use of a dome to cover the middle part of the building (central dome system). The dome was already known in pagan Rome, as well as in the East (for example, in Syria), but in most cases it was placed on a round base; if the base was square or multifaceted, then there was no proper organic connection between it and the dome. The Byzantines were the first to successfully solve the problem of placing a dome over the base of a square and generally quadrangular plan, namely through the so-called sails or pandants. The sail is a spherical triangle that fills the space between the arches connecting the pillars of the dome square. The bases of the sails together form a circle and distribute the load of the dome along the perimeter of the arches.

Hagia Sophia

The Cathedral of St. Sophia (532-537) in Constantinople is the most outstanding creation of Byzantine architecture.

The cathedral was built by Justinian in 532-537. in memory of the pacification of the rebellion, during which this sovereign almost lost his throne. 10,000 workers worked on the cathedral every day. He invited famous architects - Anthemius from Thrall and Isidore from Miletus - and entrusted them with the construction of the temple. Its foundation took place on February 23, 533. The emperor, ardently taking the enterprise to heart, wanted the church being erected to surpass in size and luxury all the temples that had ever existed, and did not stop at any expense on it: gold, silver, ivory and expensive stones were used to decorate it in huge quantities; Columns and blocks of rare marble were brought from all over the Empire to be used for its decoration. The unprecedented and unheard-of splendor of the temple amazed people’s imagination to such an extent that legends arose about the direct participation of heavenly forces in its construction. 20 years later, after the solemn consecration of St. In Sofia, the earthquake damaged the creation of Anthemius and Isidore, especially the dome; the building was supported with buttresses, from which it lost its former appearance, and the dome was folded again, and made more lofty.

When constructing the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, the Byzantines were able to perfect a design with a predominance of arched elements. In plan, the cathedral is oblong, forming three naves, bounded on one or both longitudinal sides by a number of columns or pillars separating it from neighboring naves: the middle one is wide, covered with a dome without a transept, the side ones are narrower and have a second tier for women. The temple, in which the size of the main nave had increased significantly, created ideal conditions for worship. This is a basilica with a quadrangular cross, topped with a dome. The cathedral's gigantic dome system became a masterpiece of architectural thought of its time. The architects developed an original design that gave them the opportunity to cover a very large space. The grandiose dome of Hagia Sophia with a diameter of 31.9 meters and 51 meters in height from the floor is connected to four pillars using sails: arches are thrown between the pillars, on the tops of which the base of the dome rests, and in the gaps the weight of the vault is taken over by the sails. The enormous pressure exerted on the pillars is transmitted through arches to the side walls. The task of strengthening the dome on the eastern and western sides was solved especially accurately and strikingly effectively. Each of the semi-domes rests on three arches, behind which there are two-story semicircular colonnades covered with domes. This entire consistent system, which made it possible to achieve the organic unity of the three naves and the dome, becomes visible only from the inside. And on the northern and southern sides, the space under the dome communicates with the side naves using arches supported by columns; under these arches there is another tier of similar arches, which open into the space under the dome into the gyneceum galleries arranged in the side naves, and even higher - the huge arches supporting the dome are covered with a straight wall with windows located in three rows. At the base of the dome there are 40 arched windows through which light streams. This diffuse lighting surrounding the base gives the dome the appearance of floating in the air.

When the temple was turned into a mosque, the mosaics were destroyed because... In Islam there is a ban on images of people and animals. In 1935, the layers of plaster that had hidden them were removed from the frescoes and mosaics. Thus, at present, on the walls of the temple you can see images of Jesus Christ and the Mother of God, and quotes from the Koran on four large oval-shaped shields. The first period of creation of mosaic decoration includes images in the vaulted room in the southwest corner above the southern vestibule of the cathedral. The entrance wall was decorated with a deesis. On the vault were placed 12 figures, of which only the prophet Ezekiel, the first martyr Stephen and the emperor Constantine have survived and can be identified. In the lunettes (a wall area limited by an arch and its supports in the shape of a semicircle or a segment of a circle and a horizontal line below, located above the doors or windows.) on the side walls there are half-figures of the twelve apostles and four saints Patriarchs of Constantinople period of iconoclasm: Herman, Tarasius, Nikephoros and Methodius. Around 878, mosaics depicting sixteen Old Testament prophets and fourteen saints were created in the northern tympanum of the cathedral. Of these, mosaics depicting John Chrysostom, Ignatius the God-Bearer and four other saints have been preserved.

During the reign of Emperor Leo VI (886-912), the lunette of the narfic was decorated with a mosaic depicting Jesus Christ sitting on a throne with the Gospel, open with the words “Peace be with you. I am the light of the world” in the left hand and blessing with the right. On either side of it, medallions depict half-figures of the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Michael. To the left of Jesus is the kneeling Emperor Leo VI.

The attractions of Hagia Sophia include the “weeping column” covered with copper (there is a belief that if you put your hand in the hole and, feeling the moisture, make a wish, it will definitely come true), as well as the “cold window”, where even on the hottest day there is a breeze cool breeze.

Other types of structures

Like church architecture, secular buildings up to the time of Justinian are extremely close in spirit to Roman ones. Differences associated with different climates, other building materials and the presence of closer ties with Asia Minor, appeared only gradually. Unlike Diocletian's palace in Salona (modern Split) or the palaces in Antioch, the Byzantine palace is a complex complex of more or less isolated, one- and two-story buildings distinguished by extraordinary splendor, located in a vast park. Only minor traces remain of the residential buildings of ordinary Byzantines. These houses have several floors; There is a large hall on each floor. Light pours in from smaller adjoining rooms.

Monasteries arose in places of solitude for hermits, where, on the basis of relatively scattered buildings, a monastery gradually emerged - the seat of a religious community. In the end, a developed plan of the monastery complex appeared, with walls enclosing the territory, with a church in the center, the abbot’s chambers, cell buildings, and a refectory, as can be seen in the Hilandar monastery on Mount Athos. Buildings and fortifications, most often located asymmetrically on elevated places, were harmoniously coordinated spatial compositions - ensembles.

The city layout reveals the influence of Roman urban planning: the main thoroughfares were decorated with triumphal arches, columns and statues. Water pumps played an important role, and streets often had arcades on both sides into which merchants' shops opened. Center public life there was a forum.

Byzantium was different high level development of fortification, cities were sometimes protected by triple walls or a system of forts on the approaches. Bridges, highways, aqueducts, reservoirs and covered multi-tiered underground tanks for water and other purposes - the Byzantines achieved remarkable results in the construction of all these structures.

The insane luxury and pretentiousness of Roman interiors pale in comparison to the ponderous pomp of Byzantium. True, we can only judge the decoration of the palaces of the Byzantine emperors from the memoirs of contemporaries, fragments of mosaic panels that have survived to this day, and individual examples of Byzantine-style interiors preserved in Venice, Sicily, and Spain.

The heart of Byzantium was Constantinople - the largest city of the medieval world, literally a city of palaces and luxurious villas. About twenty thousand people lived in the Grand Palace complex alone.

The large imperial palace was located in the eastern part of the city, between the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn. Its architecture and decoration served as an absolute role model for the nobility. The walls and columns of the building were decorated with plates of various types of marble and onyx, and in some rooms - with glass painted with flowers and fruits. The famous Byzantine mosaics that decorated the imperial bedchamber gave it a ceremonial rather than a practical character. The golden shimmer of the glass tesserae cubes from which the ceiling and wall panels were assembled gave rise to an atmosphere of divine presence. Floor mosaics were made primarily from colored marble, although semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, different types agate and even rock crystal.

Separately, it is worth mentioning decorative materials. The famous Byzantine silks with woven patterns, even in surviving fragments that have stood the test of time, amaze with the fineness of the work. Silk panels decorated the walls and were fixed in arched openings. If openings needed to be opened, curtains were tied or wrapped around the columns. Carpets and precious fabrics were abundantly imported from Persia and the countries of the Middle East, with which beds, stools and thrones were decorated.

Byzantine art is often (and not unreasonably) perceived as a bridge between the art of imperial Rome and the Middle Ages. Continuing ancient traditions, Byzantium also inherited the cultural achievements of the conquered peoples. A deep synthesis of ancient and oriental elements makes up characteristic feature Byzantine culture.

Byzantine style in a modern interior.

In modern design, the Byzantine style is more accessible to understanding and does not involve unnecessary plasticity and overload with decorations. The characteristic colors for the modern Byzantine style are considered to be brown, gold and white shades. The lines of the modern Byzantine style are distinguished by the presence of straight lines using an arc. The main figures of the Byzantine style are considered to be spherical and cylindrical sculptures. Often in the Byzantine style a plane is taken as a basis.

History and development of style

The history of Byzantine architecture falls into seven periods: maturation (395–527), early Byzantine architectural experimentation in Italy, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor and Macedonia; first flowering (527–726), an era of political power and active construction; Iconoclasm (726–867), a time of internal unrest, political instability and the decline of construction; the second flowering (867–1204), a new phase of the power of power and the scope of construction; Latin Empire (1204–1261), a period of national catastrophe, loss of independence, complete stoppage of construction; Renaissance (1261–1453), a time of decline of external power and majestic cultural flourishing, when construction was carried out mainly in the Balkans; the era of derivative styles (from 1453 to the present), which came with the fall of the Byzantine Empire, after which, however, the influence of its architectural style continued in Russia, the Balkans and regions with strong Islamic influence.

By 400 AD The Roman Empire weakened. The empire split into two parts - eastern and western, each with its own capital and emperor. The Western Empire disappeared under the pressure of conquerors from Northern Europe, whom the Romans called Vandals. Of several competing religions, Christianity turned out to be the strongest, the center of which was Constantinople (now Istanbul). When in 313 A.D. Emperor Constantine proclaimed Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and the need arose for new buildings.

Pagan temples were not designed for large crowds of people, and Christians needed a large hall where they could perform religious rituals. Most suited to the needs of Christians was the basilica, the public meeting hall where the Romans held court hearings.

Byzantine art experienced a rise until the beginning of the 13th century. and only after the occupation of Constantinople by the Latins did it begin to decline. During this long period of time, it created many wonderful monuments, both in the capital and in the regions of the Eastern Empire, and had a significant influence on the development of art in Armenia, Russia, Italy itself and distant France; Byzantine echoes and motifs are heard in both Arabic and Turkish art. During the dark times of the Middle Ages, Byzantium preserved ancient legends and technical techniques, which later facilitated the first steps of the art of the Renaissance.

The Byzantine and Romanesque styles are close in time, in some ways they overlap and at the same time differ, so the period from the fall of Rome (420) to 1000 or 1100 can be called a period of confusion and disorder.

During the period of early Christianity and by the time of the formation of Byzantine architecture, all its main elements were already present in the Mediterranean. The basilica type was widespread - both in multi-columned, wooden-covered early Christian churches, and in various examples of the Roman basilica itself, the vaults of which rested on widely spaced massive pillars and were supported by transverse barrel vaults of the side naves, as in the Basilica of Maxentius - Constantine in Rome ( 307-312). Meet and different options buildings of a centric type, such as the Temple of Minerva Medica (or, otherwise, the nymphaeum of the Licinian Gardens, early 4th century) or the Mausoleum of Constantina (326-329, in 1256 renamed the Church of Santa Costanza), both in Rome; Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna (c. 450); Church of San Stefano Rotondo in Rome (468-483). We find a simple cross-shaped plan in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna (c. 440). Sails, which opened up new design possibilities for Byzantine architecture, had been known in Rome since at least the 2nd century. In one 2nd century Roman tomb discovered in Palestine, the design was a cross inscribed in a rectangle, central part which was covered with a dome that turned into sails and was supported by barrel vaults along the branches of the cross; in each of the reverse corners of the cross there was a small room. However, Byzantine builders used all these elements mainly as a starting point.

Byzantine architecture is a term coined by modern historians to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. Unfortunately, many of the most impressive buildings and monuments have been demolished or destroyed. Most of the designs that survived the fall of the Byzantine Empire underwent numerous changes and modifications. Only a few pure examples have survived, which we will discuss in this article.

Byzantine style in architecture

Focused on the new capital of Constantinople (modern Istanbul) rather than the city of Rome and its environs, Byzantium developed as a distinct artistic and cultural entity. Although in the early stages, Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from Roman architecture.

One can only observe a desire to surpass old Rome in terms of luxury and grace. We see:

• complication of building geometry;
• freer use of classical elements;
• the use of brick and plaster to decorate buildings;
• striking contrast in the decoration of the interiors and exteriors of buildings.

This style spread between the 4th and 15th centuries, not only in Byzantine-held territories, but also far beyond the imperial borders.

Periods of development of Byzantine architecture

Byzantine architecture and art are generally divided into three historical periods:

• early from 330 to 730,
• average approx. 843-1204 and
• late from 1261 to 1453.

It must be taken into account that the artistic continuity of the empire (as well as political and social) was disrupted

• first with the iconoclastic dispute of 730-843,
• and then, the period of Latin occupation (conquest by the Crusaders) 1204-1261.

Features of the Byzantine style in architecture

1. The Byzantine style in temple architecture is characterized by the plan of a uniform cross, sometimes called Greek.
2. A distinctive feature of religious structures was the combination of a basilica and symmetrical central volumes (circular or polygonal).
3. A special feature is the domed roof.

Byzantine structures were characterized by a sense of floating space and luxurious decoration: marble columns and inlay, mosaic vaults, mosaic floors and sometimes golden coffered ceilings. Byzantine architecture spread throughout the Christian East, and in some places, especially Russia, it survived the fall of Constantinople (1453).

Early period (330-730 g)

Creating frescoes, mosaics and panels, early Christian or Byzantine art relied on the styles and motifs of Roman art, transferring them to Christian subjects. Byzantine architecture and art flourished during the reign of Emperor Justinian I from 527-565.

During this period he began a construction campaign in Constantinople and later in Ravenna, Italy. His most notable monument was Hagia Sophia(537 g), the name of which means “Divine Wisdom”.

Hippodrome of Constantinople, Istanbul, Türkiye

Today it is a square called Sultanahmet Meydanı (Sultan Ahmet Square) in the Turkish city of Istanbul, with a few fragments of the original structure remaining.

Although the Hippodrome is usually associated with the glory days of Constantinople as an imperial capital, it, in reality, predates this era. It was originally built in a provincial city of the Roman Empire - Byzantium, which became the capital only in 324.

Emperor Constantine the Great decided to move the seat of government from Rome to the city of Byzantium, which he renamed New Rome. This name did not catch on, and the city soon became known as Constantinople. The emperor significantly expanded the boundaries of the city, and one of his main undertakings was the reconstruction of the hippodrome.

Ruins of the Hippodrome, from an engraving by Onofrio Panvinio in his work "De Ludis Circensibus" (Venice, 1600). The engraving, dated 1580, may be based on a late 15th century drawing. Вy nieznani, rycina z XVI/XVII w – internet, Public Domain, Link

The Constantine Hippodrome is believed to have been about 450 m (1,476 ft) long and 130 m (427 ft) wide. Its stands could accommodate about 100,000 spectators. It was the site of chariot racing and related events.

Unfortunately, most of the once richly decorated hippodrome has long disappeared, but several statues, obelisks and other elements of decoration have partially survived: the Serpentine Column, the Obelisk-Fortress, the Obelisk of Thutmose III and the statues of Porphyrios.

Quadriga from the Hippodrome of Constantinople. By Tteske - Own work, CC BY 3.0, Link

The famous quadriga, which once adorned the hippodrome, was taken to Venice in 1204. Now it is exhibited in the museum of the Cathedral of San Marco, made in the Byzantine style. And its copy adorns the loggia of the basilica.

Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy

The Ostrogoth king Theodoric the Great (475-526) built an Arian church in the early 6th century. When the Byzantines conquered Italy during the Gothic War of 535-554, Justinian I converted it into an Orthodox church and dedicated it to St. Martin of Tours, one of the active fighters against the Arians.

Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy Di Pufui Pc Pifpef I - Opera propria, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15351464

The basilica received its real name in the mid-9th century, when it became home to the relics of St. Apollinaris. The magnificent early Byzantine mosaics that adorn the temple led to the basilica's inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.

Experts note: “...both the exterior and interior of the basilica clearly illustrate the fusion between Western and Eastern styles characteristic of the late 5th - early 6th century.”
Some art historians claim that one of the mosaics contains the first depiction of Satan in Western art.

Mosaic portrait of Justinian (according to another hypothesis, Theodoric) in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Author: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link

Basilica of San Vitale, Ravena, Italy

One of the most important surviving examples of early Christian Byzantine architecture and art in Europe. The Catholic Church has given this building the honorary title of "basilica", although it does not have the required architectural form. This title is given to church buildings of exceptional historical and ecclesiastical significance.

Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy

Like Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, it was built by the Ostrogoths, but was completed by the Byzantines. A simple plan of a regular octagon does not yet represent the elements of the central dome system.

It is decorated with impressive mosaics that are considered the best and best preserved example of Byzantine mosaic art outside of Constantinople. Presumably the basilica was built on the site of the martyrdom of St. Vitalis.

However, there is some confusion as to whether this saint is Vitalis of Milan or St. Vitale, whose body was discovered along with that of St. Agricola in Bologna in 393. The basilica was consecrated in 547.

This building is of great importance in Byzantine art, as the only large church from the period of Emperor Justinian I, which has survived practically unchanged to this day. It is also believed to reflect the design of the audience hall of the Byzantine imperial palace, of which nothing remains.

Church of St. Irenes or Aya Irina (Aya Airen, Agia Irena), Istanbul, Türkiye

One of the very first churches built in the Byzantine capital. It was ordered by the founder of Constantinople, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great (r. 324-337). But unfortunately, the original church was destroyed during the Nika revolt in 532. Emperor Justinian I restored it in the mid-6th century, but two centuries later, it was seriously damaged during an earthquake.

Church of Hagia Irene in Istanbul (Hagia Eirene) Posted by Gryffindor - own work, Public domain, Link

Some restorations from that time have survived to this day. Thus it is dated to the 8th century. Hagia Irene has the typical form of a Roman basilica, consisting of a nave and two aisles, which are separated by three pairs of piers.

Church of St. Irina is currently a museum, but also hosts various musical events. One of the few churches in Istanbul that has not been converted into a mosque.

Hagia Sophia (Hagia Sophia, Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom)

The best known and most impressive example of early Byzantine architecture was built in a remarkably short time, between 532 and 537, on the site of a burnt early 5th century basilica. The names of the architects of the building are well known - Antemius Tramlsky and Isidore Miletus - two major mathematicians of their time.

Hagia Sophia combines a longitudinal basilica and a central nave in a completely original way with a huge 32-meter main dome. It is supported by spherical triangles called sails and girth arches. Two colossal semi-domes, one on each side of the longitudinal axis, in the east - above the altar and in the west - above the main entrance, embodied the ingenious solution of the architects, thanks to which the impression of expanding space was created.

The main volume of St. Sophia has three naves: a wide middle one and narrower side naves. An equilateral cross formed by the main and additional halls became mandatory for the construction of Christian churches. The walls above the galleries and the base of the dome are pierced by windows, which, in bright sunlight, darken the supports and create the impression of a dome floating in the air.

Upon completion, the church was the largest and most imposing religious building in Christendom until the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine capital. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the basilica was converted into a mosque and was used for worship until 1931. Hagia Sophia has been open to the public as a museum since 1935.

Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (Constantinople)

But for many visitors, the exterior of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul is disappointing. .

Middle period of development of Byzantine architecture (843-1204)

Hosios Loukas (Monastery of St. Luke), Greece

A 10th-century monastery in the Greek city of Distomo (near Delphi) and one of the best examples of Byzantine architecture from the so-called second golden age or middle Byzantine period. This roughly corresponds to the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, from the mid-9th to the early 11th century.

View of the altar of the temples of the monastery of St. Luke. — own work, transferred from el.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:MARKELLOS using CommonsHelper ., Attribution, Link

Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990, the monastery became famous throughout the empire for its magnificent decoration, including sumptuous mosaics, frescoes and marble work. They, like the plan of the church in the form of a cross in a square, were typical of the middle Byzantine period, which survived iconoclasm.

Monastery of Daphne, Greece

One of the masterpieces of Byzantine architecture, the Daphne Monastery is also included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The main church is another prime example of the "cross" plan. The current monastery and church were built in the 11th century on the site of an earlier monastery, abandoned in the 7th and 8th centuries due to the Slavic invasion.

Author: Dimkoa — own work, Public domain, Link

And that, in turn, was built on the site of an ancient Greek temple dedicated to Apollo, which was destroyed at the end of the 4th century. The monastery complex is currently under reconstruction and is closed to visitors.

The cross-domed church of the monastery is one of the well-preserved examples of architecture from the Macedonian dynasty and the Middle Byzantine period in general.

Fortress of Angelokastro, Greece

Situated on the top of a 305-meter-high hill on the island of Corfu, Greece, Angelokastro Castle was one of the most important Byzantine citadels in the Ionian Sea. He played a key role in the defense of the island and successfully withstood three sieges by the Ottoman Turks.

View of Angelokastro, emerging on the road from the village of Krini. You can see the remains of the battlements (on the right side) of the castle, the Church of the Archangel Michael on the Acropolis (upper left corner of the castle), a round defensive tower in front of the main gate. By Dr.K. — Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link

It is not yet known exactly when it was built. But they call it the 13th century. Probably during the reign of Michael I Komnenos Doukas, founder and first ruler of the Despotate of Epirus from 1205. Although some date it to the end of the 12th century.

Late period of development of Byzantine architecture (1261-1453)

Church of St. Catherine, Greece

Church of St. Catherine in the old town of Thessaloniki, is one of the best preserved Byzantine churches of the late period. Exact time construction and consecration is unknown. But they were dated to the period of the reign of the Palaiologan dynasty from 1261 until the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.

Church of St. Catherine. Author: Macedon-40 — own work, CC BY-SA 4.0 , Link

Most of the time it acted as a mosque. In 1988, the church was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the "Palaeo-Christian and Byzantine Monuments of Thessaloniki".

Byzantine baths, Thessaloniki, Greece

Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture, which was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List "Paleochristian and Byzantine Monuments of Thessaloniki", was built in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

Baths before restoration. The original architecture follows the typical rules of Roman baths. By Marijan - Own work, Public Domain, Link

The only surviving Byzantine bathhouse in Greece, it was used by both men and women. Moreover, it operated both in the Byzantine era and in the later Ottoman period. Only the Ottomans divided the building into two separate sections: one for men and one for women. During the Byzantine period, men and women used the bath alternately.

Neo-Byzantine architecture

Neo-Byzantine architecture had no large number followers following the Gothic Revival of the 19th century, resulting in such masterpieces as Westminster Cathedral in London and in Bristol from about 1850 to 1880.

A related style known as Bristol Byzantine was popular for industrial buildings, combining elements of the Byzantine style with Moorish architecture.

Russian-Byzantine style in architecture

It was widely developed in Russia during the reign of Alexander II (1818-1881) by Grigory Gagarin and his followers. They designed

• Vladimir Cathedral in Kyiv,
• St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in Kronstadt,
• Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia,
• St. Mark's Church in Belgrade and
• New Athos Monastery in New Athos near Sukhumi.
• The largest neo-Byzantine project of the 20th century was the Temple of St. Sava in Belgrade.

Facade of Vladimir Cathedral in Kyiv. Author: Petar Milošević — own work, CC BY-SA 4.0 , Link

Post-Byzantine architecture in Orthodox countries

In Bulgaria, Russia, Romania, Serbia, Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, Ukraine, Macedonia and other Orthodox countries, the architecture of Byzantium was preserved even after the fall of the empire. From the 16th to the 18th centuries it gave rise to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture.

In medieval Bulgaria these were the Preslav and Tarnovo architectural schools.
In medieval Serbia: Raskin School of Architecture, Vardar School of Architecture and Moravian School of Architecture.

Byzantine architecture also achieved remarkable results in the construction of bridges, roads, aqueducts, reservoirs and covered multi-tiered underground cisterns for water and other purposes.

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About the innovative ideas of architects Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul) read on the Zen channel Architecture.

Art historians divide this period into three parts: the "Dark Age", the "Macedonian Renaissance" and the Comnenian "Renaissance".
Let's look at them in order, but first let's briefly summarize the development of architecture in the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th-6th centuries. This will help us remember the “golden age” and quickly get into the topic. So the foundations were laid at that time artistic style, which went down in world history artistic culture How Byzantine style .

By combining basilica and cross-dome architectural structures, a new type of religious structure was created - the domed basilica, the most common architectural form of the Renaissance in Italy.
Decorative means of design were found that were capable of expressing the most abstract ideas. The leading place belongs to mosaics - the Byzantines created golden smalt.
Was created type of cross-domed church, meeting the requirements of Christian worship, the idea of ​​multiple chapters was developed.
These achievements made it possible in subsequent centuries to develop a unique system of decorative decoration for the Orthodox cross-domed church.

At the end of the 7th century, a great turmoil began, which brought the state to almost complete disorder, so the period from the second half of the 7th century. and until the beginning of the 9th century. called the "dark time".
In Byzantium, culture is increasingly influenced by the Greeks (generations appear who were brought up in a different cultural environment, having lost many concepts of Roman or Roman - ancient culture), there is a gradual simplification of architectural forms, the main task now is to unload the internal space. For example, the Church of St. Sophia in Thessalonica - the main nave and 2 side neves, a simple middle cross with a dome cannot withstand any comparison with Sophia of Constantinople. In the dome there is the Savior in power, the Mother of God in the faceted apse, the altar is shifted to the apse, there is no iconostasis, only a low altar barrier.

on the left is the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki/Thessaloniki, Greece
on the right is the Church of St. Sofia, view from the east

In 867, Basil I the Macedonian ascended the throne, marking the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled in the 9th-10th centuries. This period marks the activity of two great Slavic educators, Cyril and Methodius.

Starting from "Macedonian Renaissance" The cross-domed shape of the temple received classical completeness, becoming the main type of Byzantine architectural structure. Let us remember that its basis is a square, divided by four supports into three naves in the longitudinal and transverse directions. Support pillars They carry a system of ceilings in the form of semicircular vaults and a central dome, supported by arches and four pillars. This design system made it possible to create a large number of options. Depending on the tasks set, it was possible to change the scale of the structure, leaving the central core unchanged:
1. by adding a couple more pillars, the temple was increased in length;
2. By adding two rows of columns and bringing the number of naves to five, the temple was expanded in width.

on the left is a plan of a single-nave Byzantine temple
on the right is a plan of a three-nave Orthodox Byzantine cross-domed church

With the continued simplification of the general culture, the cross-domed system of temples, becoming distinctive feature"Macedonian Renaissance", became complete and widespread precisely during the period of Middle Byzantine architecture.

general design of the cross-domed church

The most important part of the cross-domed church, like other Christian churches, was altar, indicated by a semicircular protrusion - apse, extending beyond the square of the plan.

How is the altar constructed?

In the central part of the apse there was throne; in the northern part - altar, where they prepared bread and wine for communion; in the southern part - deacon, a place for storing church vessels, vestments, books and other valuables.

Thus, the main efforts of the architects were aimed at organizing the space under the dome and the altar as the focus of the cult action and at realizing the symbolic idea stairs- the mystical biblical ladder along which communication between heaven and earth takes place.

symbolism of the space of the cross-domed church

Not only individual significant details, but also the overall structure of the temple had a symbolic meaning. The four walls of the temple, united by one chapter, symbolized the four cardinal directions under the rule of a single universal Christian church (so dreamed). The altar in all churches was placed in the east, because according to the Old Testament, Eden was located there, and according to the New Testament, the ascension of Jesus Christ took place in the east. During the same period, rules began to emerge for the arrangement of subjects on the walls of churches: the apse was dedicated to the Mother of God, the dome to Christ.

During the period of the “Macedonian Renaissance,” an iconographic canon was developed, according to which, for example, John Chrysostom was depicted as an old man with an ascetic face, a short rounded beard and a bald head; Basil the Great - an old man with a wedge-shaped long beard, the Mother of God - in a veil-maphoria with three stars (on the shoulders and head). For more detailed stories about this, see my publications on the topics of Byzantium. Mosaics..., Byzantine icon and Byzantine canon in LJ Travel and culture - my life, website

XI-XII centuries - the reign of the Komnenos dynasty, the brilliant flowering of Byzantine art, called Komnenian "Renaissance" or second golden age .
From the 11th century the internal space of temples is becoming more complex, which indicates some development of architecture.

on the left is the Daphnia monastery, general view, Athens, Greece
on the right - Daphnia monastery, interior space

Mass construction of monasteries began, which were a complex of buildings surrounded by walls and towers with only one entrance. The outlines of the walls formed a polygon in plan, connected with the terrain.
In the center of the monastery courtyard there were, as a rule, a single-domed cross-domed church and buildings of utilitarian significance: a refectory, a hospital, a library and, as a rule, a scriptorium (a workshop where books were copied). One of the most significant, with an extensive library and scriptorium, was the Monastery of John the Theologian on the island of Patmos, founded in 1085.

on the left is the Monastery of St. John the Theologian. Patmos, Greece
on the right is the interior space of the Monastery of St. John the Theologian, Fr. Patmos, Greece

Another interesting example of Byzantine churches from this period is the katholikon (main church) of the monastery of Hosios Loukas, named after St. Luke of Styria, built around 1020.

on the left is the monastery of Hosios Loukas, appearance, Delphi, Greece
on the right is a plan of the churches of the monastery of Hosios Loukas, at the top is the Church of the Virgin/Theotokas (c. 1040), below is the katholikon (c. 1020)

The interior of the catholicon with contrasts of light and shadow, open and closed planes, smooth marble covering and faceted mosaics is an example of the continuation of Justinian architecture of the 6th century. with its mystical mystery.

interior of the katholikon of Hosios Loukas

A characteristic feature of Byzantine churches from the 11th century. the order of the cells of their plan becomes staggered. It resembles the pattern of five in dominoes. Square or rectangular, they are divided into nine bays, the middle of which is a large domed square. This square is surrounded by four bays with barrel vaults, as well as four smaller squares at the corners, which are also covered with domes.
The plan of St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560) is closest to the plans of such churches. A number of art publications emphasize that this unique plan was invented by Russian architects (or architects), and they/he may simply have known the Byzantine heritage very well and developed it in relation to new conditions (this does not at all detract from their contribution to the history of world architecture and architecture).

plan of St. Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, Russia

On Mount Athos, the spiritual center of monasticism (the Chalkidiki peninsula in the Aegean Sea), a unique type of temple has developed - triconcha, with altar projections on the east, north and south sides.

Cathedral of the Great Lavra, view from the west of the altar apse, Athos, Greece

The masonry system, combining stone blocks and flat bricks, gave special expressiveness to the monastery buildings - plinth, which made it possible to decorate the walls with a decorative pattern. More details about the features of Byzantine construction equipment and technology in the next publication.

Cathedral of the monastery of Esphigmen, Greece

After the division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox in 1054 and the deepening differences in church ceremonies, the need to create a system of internal decoration of an Orthodox Byzantine church that carries deep meaning acquired great importance.
Decorative decoration of temple interiors with mosaics has practically ceased - it is too expensive, they are replacing fresco paintings. However, works made using the Byzantine mosaic technique acquire even greater value, so the Greeks restored them.

on the left - golden mosaics of Hosios Loukas in Phokis, Delphi, Greece
right - Introduction to the Temple, mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, Daphne Monastery, Greece

Since Byzantine churches became much smaller in size, it was impossible to depict the Universe through the means of architecture, as in St. Sophia of Constantinople, was no longer possible, so the importance of paintings, denoting the symbolic meaning of various parts of the interior space of the church, increased immeasurably. As a result, a three-part multifaceted symbolism of the organization of the internal space of the temple gradually emerged.

Space symbolism - the temple as a reduced model of the Universe: the vaults and domes represent the sky, the space near the floor - the earth, the altar symbolized heaven, the western part of the temple - hell. In accordance with these divisions, the themes of the paintings are placed.
At the highest point of the temple on the dome vault is an image of the Pantocrator/Pantocrator or the Savior in Power - the Creator and Head of the Universe, usually surrounded by archangels.

Savior in power, dome of the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki, Greece

In the apse, on the vault of the high altar arch, the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God - an earthly woman in the image of Oranta/Praying, was depicted.

Our Lady of Oranta, apse of the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki, Greece

On the drum of the dome, in the spaces between the windows, there were figures of the twelve apostles, disciples of Christ, sometimes with symbols of the Holy Spirit descending on them. The number 12 is associated with the number of sons of Jacob (the forefather of Christ) and, accordingly, with the 12 tribes of Israel. Twelve is the product of three and four, where three is a symbol of the divine essence and the “heavenly world,” and four is the number of elements, cardinal points and the “downstream world.”

12 apostles in the dome of the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki, Greece

The four “sails” depicted the four evangelists, or their symbols: Matthew - an angel, Mark - a lion, Luke - a calf, John - an eagle. This is symbolic of the theological organization of the church: the dome of the temple rests on pillars, just as the universal church rests on the four gospels.

Evangelists on sails and 12 apostles on the drum of the dome, St. Stamp, Venice, Italy

On the pillars are the great martyrs, “pillars of the Christian faith.”
Thus, Jesus Christ yesterday, today and always, through the Mother of God, the apostles, evangelists and great martyrs, is in unity with the earthly church, that is, with those praying in the temple.

symbolism of the architecture of the Orthodox church

Topographic symbolism connected each place in the temple with places in Palestine where the corresponding event in the life of Christ took place. Entrance to the temple with a baptismal font - baptism in the Jordan River; apse - Bethlehem Cave, birthplace of Christ. The throne in the altar is Golgotha ​​(at the same time the place of the crucifixion, the Holy Sepulcher, the Resurrection and the place of God's presence in heaven); pulpit - Mount Tabor (at the same time the place of the Transfiguration, Jesus' reading of the Sermon on the Mount, as well as the stone from which the angel proclaimed the Resurrection of Jesus Christ).

Temporary symbolism - a system for placing paintings in the upper part of the walls. In the cross-domed church, movement in a circle dominates; each day of the church calendar marks not a simple memory of long-past events, but as if they were happening again. Circular arrangement of scene paintings holiday cycle at the level of the second tier, including the “sleeves” of the architectural cross of the temple, means that the past and present coexist simultaneously and eternally. This tradition of painting the temple developed in the 11th century.

Then he appeared iconostasis- an altar barrier separating the “ship of salvation,” the location of believers, from the altar. The iconostasis was a marble or wooden structure with a crowning horizontal beam - architrave. At the top, in the center, is a cross, the ancient sign of Christ. Below, most often, two large or several small icons were placed, among which two cycles stood out, the most important for the subsequent development of the iconostasis - Deesis And holidays.

iconostasis, Hosios Loukas temple, Greece

In the XI-XII centuries. Byzantine architects and icon painters were widely known and worked in many countries. This is the period of greatest influence of Byzantine culture in the south and southeast of Europe, and in Rus'. At this time, architectural ensembles and paintings were created in the Palatine Chapel in Palermo, St. Sophia of Kyiv, St. Sophia of Novgorod and other churches.

To be continued…

For development modern society The cultural heritage of the Roman Egyptian kingdom and many other equally great civilizations had a huge impact. A huge number of cultural monuments have survived to this day, representing to society the worldview of the ancient people.

The art of Byzantium is the clearest example of this. After the division of the great, the kings of Constantinople ascended the throne, who after their eleven-century reign left a gigantic amount. The complex and difficult stages of historical development not only did not aggravate the growth and improvement of the art of civilization, but also gave the world unforgettable artifacts, a small part of which is available for visual acquaintance even now .

The art of Byzantium began its development with the slave system. The smooth transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages also left its indelible imprint on the improvement of culture. This period is characterized by magnificent architectural monuments and it was at that time that the architect states tried to preserve the enormous heritage that the people inherited from the great Roman Empire.

The adoption of Christianity by the people had a huge role in the art of Byzantium. This brought the state closer to such dissimilar territories as Rus', Georgia, Armenia, Serbia, etc. This period is characterized by widespread installation of domed ceilings during the construction of churches. The medieval period saw the development of such trends as the creation of mosaics, frescoes and book miniatures. It is worth noting that it is at this stage that icon painting plays an increasingly important role. But sculptural creations cannot boast of their rapid development. However, it was the social life and structure of the people of the state that imparted a special charm and unique beauty to the art of Byzantium. At the same time, the church fully served for the benefit of society. In accordance with the medieval ideas of the people, the emperor was the vicegerent of the Lord. His power was supported by a powerful church apparatus.

The visual arts of Byzantium also underwent some changes. Artists of the first centuries of our era displayed vivid images in their creations that were imbued with allegorical features. Plasticity and abstraction from the Christian principle are the main features of the paintings of that time. They were replaced by creativity, the main feature of which was the divine principle. The expression of spiritual greatness has become an integral part of every piece of art.

The Church was the only major critic. The main directions in which the development and formation of artistic art took place were icon painting, frescoes, mosaics and book miniatures. A background of shimmering golden color, sparkling edges of stones and smalt, bright ornaments - these are the main features of almost any work by the creators of that era for which Byzantium became famous throughout the world. The art of this state has gone through several stages of its development. The first of these was the early Christian stage (from the 1st to the 3rd century AD). It is followed by the so-called Early Byzantine, which affected the sixth and seventh centuries. This period is famous for the development of temple architecture and was followed by the iconoclastic stage for a century and a half, which was replaced by the Macedonian Renaissance, which lasted until the 11th century. The penultimate period was the era of conservatism, and the development of the great art of Byzantium ended with Hellenistic principles and anti-crisis tendencies, which was reflected in the Paleologian Renaissance.