According to F. Boas, the modal personality

According to F. Dostoevsky, “language is a people”. The famous French writer A. Camus declared: "My homeland is the French language."

Language is the main tool for cognition and development of the external world. He also speaks the main means of communication between people. Equally, language makes it possible to get to know other cultures.

Being inseparable from national cultures, languages ​​pass along with them through the same vicissitudes of fate. Therefore, starting from the New Time, as the world was redivided into spheres of influence, many languages ​​of ethnic groups and peoples who fell into colonial and other dependency turned out to be more and more crowded out of the historical scene.

This situation has become even more complex these days. If in the past the problem of survival concerned mainly the languages ​​of dependent and underdeveloped countries and peoples, now it also affects developed European countries. This is due to the growing expansion of the English (American) language, which is increasingly becoming a universal means of communication. For this reason, mixed, hybrid languages ​​arise, an example of which is the so-called "frangle" or "frenglish", which is a bizarre mixture of French and English.

At the same time, of course, it is not only the language that suffers, but the entire national culture, which in its own country becomes non-primary, secondary. What is happening is what Western theorists call "Folklorization" European cultures, when they begin to take the place of folklore, pass into the category of local exoticism. Experiencing a particularly acute and painful situation France, which for three centuries - from the middle of the XVII to the middle of the XX century. - was rightfully considered the first cultural power, and its language occupied a special, privileged place. However, by the middle of our century, the situation French and the culture is deteriorating significantly. In opposition to this, the international movement of Francophonie emerges, the main goal of which is the protection, preservation and dissemination of the French language and culture.

In the history of Western Europe, French was the third language that managed to become a universal language of international communication. Before him, only Greek and Latin achieved this status. Around the X century. French in its meaning is beginning to become more and more equal to Latin. Since the 17th century. it spreads throughout the world, and with it the French culture, whose influence in the XVIII century. achieves unprecedented strength. The entire enlightened elite of Europe and America, including Russia, speaks and reads French. For secular ladies, knowledge of the French language and playing the harpsichord are considered mandatory in all countries.

The expression "French Europe", coined by the Italian diplomat Carachioli, is rapidly becoming common. Period from 1889 to 1914 is considered the golden age of the expansion of French culture to all countries and continents. Paris becomes the capital of world art. Many creators accept the well-known formula, according to which each artist has two homelands: one is his own, and the other is Paris.

However, in the XX century. fortune turns away from the French language. Already in 1918, with the signing of the Versailles Treaty, he lost his monopoly of being the only language of international diplomacy. Even more serious losses were caused by the results of the Second World War, which were unfavorable for France. Started in the late 1950s. the collapse of the colonial system exacerbated the situation. as many of the former French colonies abandoned the French language.

French gave way to English (American). It is under such conditions that Francophonie. It currently spans over 50 countries and has adherents on all five continents. While its purpose is to protect, preserve and flourish the French language and culture, it does not claim to restore their former priority. Equally, she does not challenge the established primacy of English language, but opposes its complete domination, against the displacement of other languages ​​by it. Francophonie stands for the preservation and development of all languages ​​and cultures, for their fruitful coexistence and mutual enrichment.

"Personality types" - Practical (realistic) type. Standard (office) type. Opposite type: artistic. Related types: artistic and entrepreneurial. Close types: realistic and artistic. Opposite type: intelligent. Intelligent type. Opposite type: entrepreneurial. Entrepreneurial (entrepreneurial) type.

"Personality of Lermontov" - Remember what poetic dimensions exist. School for guards ensigns and cavalry cadets. House in Pyatigorsk, where M.Yu. Lermontov lived. Derse Castle. The poem "Sail" ". The personality of the poet. Define the rhyme in the poem "Sail" by M.Yu. Lermontov. Monument to M.Yu. Lermontov in Tarkhany.

"The concept of personality" - Subject. The task "Spell out". K.G. Jung (1875-1961). Correlation of the concepts "individual", "subject", "individuality", "personality". Personality and subject. In the "Brief Psychological Dictionary" (1985, ed. Therefore, individuality is only one of the aspects of a person's personality. The individual acts primarily as a genotypic formation.

"Modal verbs" - Modal verbs. Das ist eine Katze. Wollen Konnen Mogen Durfen Sollen mussen. Konnen. Diese Katze kann schnell laufen. The place of the modal verb in the sentence. Conjugation of modal verbs. Durfen. To want, to desire, to love, to be able, to be able. Mussen. What modal verbs have we already learned? Sollen.

"Chekhov's personality" - was born in Taganrog on January 17 (29), 1860. House in Moscow. Taganrog. Anton Pavlovich Chekhov. House where Anton Chekhov was born. Mother - Evgenia Yakovlevna, a wonderful hostess, very caring and loving. Chekhov's father's shop in Taganrog. Father - Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov was a very interesting person. The Chekhov family.

"Education of the personality of a student" - Strategic goal: education of the personality of a Russian. Pedagogical Necessity-. Artistic and aesthetic profile: The upbringing of a Russian in a multicultural education. The main goal is the formation of behavioral stereotypes based on tolerance and citizenship. Conceptual positions of the upbringing of the Russian.

Introductory expression Highlighted by punctuation marks along with related words. For more details on punctuation in introductory words, see Appendix 2. (Appendix 2) This gave rise to a wonderful controversy, which, in my opinion, has not yet ... ... Punctuation Dictionary

In your opinion, from your point of view, the Dictionary of Russian synonyms. in your opinion the adverb, number of synonyms: 2 according to your (2) ... Synonym dictionary

Adverb, number of synonyms: 16 IMHO (9) as I see it (61) as it seems to me (64) ... Synonym dictionary

In your opinion, from your point of view, the Dictionary of Russian synonyms. in your opinion the adverb, number of synonyms: 2 in your opinion (6) ... Synonym dictionary

Adverb, number of synonyms: 2 IMHO (9) in my opinion (16) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

in the opinion- see the opinion of whom what, whose, in the sign. input word-of-mouth According to observers, the conflict has dragged on. In my opinion, no improvement is foreseen ... Dictionary of many expressions

Cradle of Humanity. The age of the bone remains of ancient hominids is determined at 3 million years (in Hadar, Ethiopia; in Koobi Fora, Kenya). The formation of ancient people took place in the savannah. They were engaged in hunting and gathering. The first remains found ... Historical Dictionary

Cm … Synonym dictionary

Cm … Synonym dictionary

Adverch, number of synonyms: 1 with special cynicism (1) ASIS Synonym Dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Books

• , V.L. Durov. VL Durov's extensive work contains rich and varied material, which can be divided into three groups. Firstly, we have here quite a lot of material on such observations for ...
• Animal training psychological observations of animals trained in my opinion (40 years of experience), Durov VL .. VL Durov's extensive work contains rich and varied material, which can be divided into three groups. Firstly, we have here quite a lot of material on such observations for ...

F. Kotler on marketing strategy

According to F. Kotler, a firm can play one of four roles in the competitive struggle. Marketing strategy is determined by the position of the company in the market, whether it is a leader, contender, follower, or occupies a certain niche:

1. The leader (market share of about 40%) feels confident. The market leader holds the largest market share for a particular product. In order to consolidate a dominant position, a leader must strive to expand the market as a whole, attracting new consumers, finding new ways of consuming and using products. To protect its market share, the leader uses strategies of positional, flank and mobile defense, preemptive strikes and repelling an attack, forced reduction. Most market leaders seek to deprive competitors of the very opportunity to go on the offensive.

2. Contender for leadership (about 30% market share). Such a company aggressively attacks the leader and other competitors. As part of special strategies, an applicant can use the following attack options:

- "frontal attack" - carried out in many directions (new products and prices, advertising and sales), this attack requires significant resources;

- "encirclement" - an attempt to attack all or a significant market territory of the market.

- "bypass" - a transition to the production of fundamentally new goods, the development of new markets.

- "gorilla attack" - small impetuous attacks not entirely correct methods.

3. Follower (20% share) is a company that strives to maintain its market share and get around all the breaks. However, even followers must adhere to strategies aimed at maintaining and increasing market share. The follower can play the role of a copycat or a doppelganger.

4. Digging into market niches - (10% share) serves a small segment of the market that does not care large firms... Traditionally, small businesses have played this role; today, large companies also use niche strategies. The key to niches is specialization. Niche targeting companies choose one or more areas of specialization: by end users, vertically, depending on the size of customers, by special customers, by geography, by product, by individual customer service, at a certain quality / price ratio, by service, on distribution channels. Several niches are preferable to one.

M. Porter on five basic competitive strategies

1. A cost leadership strategy that involves reducing the total cost of producing goods or services.

2. A strategy of broad differentiation aimed at imparting specific features to products that distinguish them from the products of competing firms, which helps to attract a large number buyers.

3. A cost-effective strategy that enables buyers to get more value for their money through a combination of low costs and wide product differentiation. The challenge is to ensure optimal costs and prices relative to manufacturers of products with similar features and quality.

4. Focused strategy, or market niche strategy based on low costs, focused on a narrow segment of buyers, where the firm is ahead of its competitors due to lower production costs

5. Focused strategy, or market niche strategy based on product differentiation, aims to provide representatives of the selected segment with goods or services that best meet their tastes and requirements.

M. Porter identifies three key general strategies: cost leadership, differentiation and focus. Let's consider each of them sequentially.

1. Cost leadership. When implementing this strategy, the task is to achieve leadership in terms of costs in their industry through a set of functional measures aimed at solving this particular problem. As a strategy, it implies tight control over costs and overheads, minimizing costs in areas such as research and development, advertising, etc. Low costs give organizations good chances in its industry, even if there is fierce competition. A cost leadership strategy often creates a solid foundation for competition in an industry where fierce competition in other forms is already established.

2. Differentiation. This strategy involves differentiating an organization's product or service from those offered by competitors in the industry. As Porter shows, the approach to differentiation can take many forms, including image, trade mark, technology, distinctive features, special customer services, etc. Differentiation requires serious research and development as well as sustainable marketing. In addition, buyers should give their liking for the product as something unique. The potential risk of this strategy is changes in the market or release of analogs initiated by competitors, which will destroy the competitive advantage gained by the company.

3. Focusing. The objective of this strategy is to focus on a specific consumer group, market segment or geographically distinct market. The idea is to serve a specific purpose well, not the industry as a whole. It is assumed that the organization will thus be able to serve a narrow target group better than its competitors. This position provides protection against all competitive forces. Focus can also be combined with cost leadership or product / service customization.

The analysis of the competitive environment and the determination of the organization's position in it involves the determination of the complexity and dynamism of the competitive environment. The universal methods of such analysis are M. Porter's five forces model and the analysis of competitors' costs.

The Five Forces Model assumes a structural analysis based on determining the intensity of competition and examining the threat of market penetration by potential competitors, the power of buyers, the power of suppliers, threats from substitutes for a product or service. Competitor cost analysis boils down to clarifying the strategic factors that control costs, the cost analysis itself. and modeling the costs of competitors.

To receive competitive advantage a firm can use three general competitive strategies: cost leadership (the task is to achieve cost leadership in a specific area through a set of measures to control them), individualization (it is assumed that the organization's product or service is distinguished from the products or services of competitors in this area) , focusing (the task is to focus on a specific group, market segment or geographic region).

First, in practice, there are much more factors influencing the choice of a company's behavior strategy: improving product quality; price drop; cost reduction; increase in the release program; improving the quality of service of goods; reduced operating costs; development of a new market, etc.

Secondly, the choice of the firm's strategy is determined not only by the orientation towards changing one factor and the choice of only one of the listed strategies, but by the dynamic combination of many factors in the formation of the strategy. Can't a firm simultaneously improve the quality of the product, reduce unit costs, improve the quality of service, enter new markets, and increase the production program?

All of these factors can be involved at the same time. Everything is determined by the competitiveness of the firm's personnel and the availability of funds.

F. Bacon (1561-1626), who wrote the New Organon. Like many modern thinkers, he believed that philosophy should be primarily practical- where it remains speculative (scholastic), it is untrue. The conclusions of science should be based on facts and from them go to broad generalizations.

Experimental knowledge corresponds to the introduced by F. Bacon inductive method, consisting of observation, analysis, comparison and experiment.

In his search, he pushed away from the cardinal opposition of old and new (to be created) sciences. All the previous scientific heritage was assessed by him negatively. The old sciences are in an unfavorable state, appear as eternal rotation and movement in a circle. In other words, the old sciences are hanging in the air, and this is completely unacceptable. Science must rest on the solid foundations of heterogeneous and measured experience. Therefore, according to F. Bacon, the old sciences are practically useless, they are dead, since they do not bear fruit and are mired in disagreements. The old sciences are basically based on practice, observations, reasoning, which lie practically on the surface, in simple terms. But only finding provisions, assignments and directions for practice, and not evidence and probable grounds, is the value and goal for the new science.

The main "tool" of the new science is becoming induction(from the establishment of axioms to general concepts):

· Selects what is necessary in the experience by the method of elimination.

· All data must be carefully checked.

This also applies to sensory data. According to F. Bacon, feelings are not the measure of things. They are indirectly related to things: feelings judge only experience, and experience, in turn, judges an object. Feelings have always caused a lot of problems, they are deceptive, random, disorderly. The experience is also confusing and contradictory.

The main scourge of the old sciences lies in ignorance of the reasons. Therefore, the new science is faced with the task of moving from correct axioms to practical provisions. This is an inductive method, but understood somewhat differently from the representatives of the old science. If earlier by induction we understood the enumeration of facts and on their basis a conclusion was made, then for F. Bacon induction is a movement from particular facts to general ones.

F. Bacon speaks of great Restoration of sciences. This method is as follows:

1. Destruction (freeing the mind from false concepts or ideals)

2. Creation (presentation and confirmation of the rules of the new method, the rules of the new science).

The principle of Destruction is based on Bacon's criticism of the subjective features of the mind, cleansing the mind of idols or ghosts. Experience can give reliable knowledge only when the consciousness is free from false "ghosts", otherwise there can be no question of science.

There are 4 types of idols: cave idols, theater idols, clan idols, market idols.

Idols of genus and market assure a person that things are alike.

· Ghosts of the genus are errors arising from the fact that a person judges nature by analogy with the life of people.

· Ghosts of the market are the habits of using generally accepted, "walking" ideas and opinions in judging the world without a critical attitude towards them.

Ghosts of the cave and theater make a person believe that things are similar to what he knows about them. In other words, things are as we invented them for ourselves.

· Ghosts of the cave are mistakes of an individual character, depending on the upbringing, tastes, habits of people.

· The ghosts of the theater are associated with blind faith in authorities.

Idols negatively affect a person who has fallen under their rule. Therefore, it is necessary to rid the mind of their authority, to clear it for science. Do not refer to any authorities - this was the principle of modern science, which took as its motto the dictum of Horace: "I am not obliged to swear by anyone's words, whoever he is" (comparison with the tradition of the Middle Ages - obligatory reinforcement of their positions by authorities, tradition of comments) ...

Searching for the truth F.Beconom is understood in three ways, that is, the search can be carried out in three ways:

1. the "ant" method (unconscious gathering of facts): "what I see, I take it."

2. the "spider" method (production of facts from ourselves) This is the method of speculative dogmatists.

3. the "bee" method (processing facts with the help of reason).

All sciences are natural sciences. But only philosophy, as a theoretical science, can be deduced from reason. Philosophy studies nature (philosophy of nature), man (anthropology) and God (natural theology). Subsequently, psychology, ethics and logic are born from anthropology.

Bacon places great hopes on philosophy. It must become an effective science, free from delusions (idols, ghosts), inductive and consistent.

If F. Bacon developed mainly the method of empirical, experimental research of nature, then the French scientist and philosopher R. Descartes, on the contrary, put reason in the first place, bringing the role of experience to a simple, practical verification of data.

The rationalistic method of R. Descartes (1596-1650)

A reformer in science, Descartes created a method designed to guide thinking in order to find truth. Descartes, assuming that this method should be intended for all sciences, proceeded from the theory of rationalism, which assumed the presence in the human mind innate ideas, which largely determine the results of cognition. He attributed most of the foundations of logic and mathematics to the number of innate ideas (for example, position: two quantities equal to the third are equal to each other: A = B, C = B, A = C).

This method included a number of methodological principles. His most important and famous position: "Cogito, ergo sum"- “I think, therefore I exist” is the only one that, in his opinion, cannot be doubted, and in which the main ontological and epistemological premises of his philosophy are brought together.

"Cogito" (I think) is interpreted by Descartes as the first mental evidence, which has a completely transparent (clear) character for the intellect, so that this very statement is taken by him as a model, a standard of clear and distinct thoughts.

Knowledge "sum" (I exist)- clearly and distinctly and is a conclusion from "I think." As Descartes says, we know that we exist only because we doubt. He built a model of scientific thinking, in which "I" appears as a subject doubts.

The concept of R. Descartes reflects the rationalistic orientation and rationalistic understanding of the personality in the New Times. Personality is the O of its experience. The ability to reason correctly and to be able to distinguish truth from falsehood is the same for all people. There are no smarter ones and no more stupid others. There is still a difference, but it lies in the application of reason, in the difference in paths and in the non-coincidence of things.

R. Descartes analyzes his childhood and seeks to understand how his mind achieved certain results. From early childhood he was "nourished" by the sciences. As he believed, the entire learning process is aimed at obtaining reliable knowledge of everything useful in life. But the more he studied, the more he became convinced that he knew nothing (although others did not notice it).

All this together gave R. Descartes reason to think that there is no such science that gives universal knowledge about the world. R. Descartes examines a number of sciences and shows their inconsistency. The reason for this inconsistency of sciences is different:

· In the story, the question arises about the reliability of the description.

· Mathematics and poetry in general, in his opinion, have no true application.

· Even philosophy, which has no foundation, and which is the subject of various disputes, is very unstable.

· The same applies to other sciences that borrow their principles from philosophy.

It is necessary to find a science that can be found in oneself. Only three sciences can serve this purpose: algebra, geometry and logic. But on closer examination, it becomes obvious that this is not enough due to the fact that logic, instead of admitting mistakes and errors, serves as an explanation to others of what is known or to say about what you do not know. Math is hard to grasp (dark and confusing art) and makes our mind difficult. This explains the need to find a new method.

Rules:

1. Never take for true anything that would not be clearly recognized as such. In other words, carefully avoid recklessness and prejudice and include in your judgments only what appears to the mind so clearly and so clearly that there is no reason to question them.

2. Divide each of the investigated difficulties into as many parts as necessary for its solution or overcoming.

3. In the process of cognition, adhere to a certain order of thinking, starting with the objects of the simplest and most easily cognizable and gradually going up to cognition of the most complex.

4. Always draw up such comprehensive and overview lists and overviews so general that there is confidence that there are no omissions.

From these provisions we see that the nature of knowledge, according to Descartes, is that only the requirement of doubt, which extends to all knowledge, leads to the confirmation of reliable knowledge. Descartes, realizing that he is being deceived (about the truths of the old sciences; we are also very often deceived for one reason or another) begins to doubt everything. But at the same time, he cannot doubt that he doubts, that there is his doubt, his thought. Therefore, "I think, therefore, I exist" - leads us through the certainty of thought and being of a thinking being to the certainty of the existence of things. And there is no need to assume to the human mind, Descartes said, of any boundaries: there is nothing so distant that it could not be achieved, nor so secret that it could not be discovered.

R. Descartes deduces the principles of a new, that is, reliable, philosophy:

1. I think, therefore I am.

2. Everything that we imagine clearly and distinctly is true.

Philosophy, following the rules, is able to comprehend the truth, it becomes evidence-based (and not probabilistic, like the old philosophy). Reason, based on rules, becomes more structured and therefore can be used more effectively.

Lecture summary:

1. Man and the world of man in the era of modern times are undergoing cardinal changes. This is due to the scientific revolution of the 17th century, which was the revolution of thinking.

2. In the realities of modern European culture, the essence of a person and his way of life are fundamentally changing: a person appears as S, and the world as O. Therefore, cognition is cognition by the active, dominant S of the subdued, subordinate and passive O.

3. The method of cognition is experiment. This is due to the active position of the man-S and the dominant one for the new European concept of the mechanistic world. Therefore, the main science of modern times is theoretical and experimental natural science.

4. The goal of cognition in the era of modern times is the desire of man to comprehend nature as it is in itself. Therefore, scientific knowledge exists at the level of laws, that is, it is necessary to repeat, general and universal connections of phenomena.

5. The language of scientific knowledge is a mathematical and logical language saturated with special terms, working with a rigorous scientific system within the framework of the law of cause and effect and assuming a special understanding of the truth.

6. Cognition is based on a practical method, the emergence of which is due to the requirement that the New Philosophy should become a practical, not a speculative science.

Literature:

1. Gaidenko PP History of New European philosophy in its connection with science. - M., 2000.

2. Kosareva LM The birth of modern science from the spirit of culture. - M., 1997.

3. Introduction to philosophy: textbook for universities / I.T. Frolov, E.A. Arab-Ogly, V.G. Borzenkov. - M., 2007.

4. Kanke V. A. Philosophy. Historical and systematic course: a textbook for university students. - M., 2006.