Brief information about ancient Russian literature. Old Russian literature

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Abstract on the topic:

Old Russian womenTia: monuments, heroes, evolution

Old Russian hagiographic literature was one of the most important means of religious education. The lives depicted the moral ideal of a person who conquered earthly passions and followed Christian commandments. Although in concept and form the lives seem to be cliché, each ancient Russian life is unique and original, and each has its own hero.

“The definition of a hagiographic genre as “high” implies the respect it evokes and the appropriate style, but by no means elitism... hagiographic works are both “high” and mass: they are addressed to the entire people and themselves experience the influence of the culture of the “silent majority.” (M.P. Odessky, article “A Sick Man” in Old Russian Literature”, “Old Russian Literature”, Moscow, “Heritage”. 1995, p. 162).

Lives of saints occupied a large place in ancient Russian literature proper. They were a means of introducing Christian morality and the worldview characteristic of Christianity. In addition, they contained folk fantasy, a variety of historical, everyday and geographical information, which is interesting to the reader.

For many centuries, the model for hagiographic literature such as biographies remained “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, and for the type of stories about martyrdom - “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”.

Russian Lives differed from the canonical Lives of the Byzantine type. The appearance of original hagiographic literature is associated with the struggle of Rus' for church independence. Therefore, in ancient Russian hagiographic literature there are journalistic, political and historical elements.

Princely hagiographies became a variety of hagiographic works. One of them is “The Tale of Boris and Gleb.” This work differs significantly from those characteristic of ancient Russian lives in that its main theme is not suffering and martyrdom for the faith, but princely strife, when a brother can kill a brother, can take possession of his “non-idle” wife, when a brother can take revenge on his brother and shed his own blood.

In form, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” resembles historical story. It contains real facts stories, names, faces, events. It mentions the baptism of Rus', the raids of the Pechenegs; The heroes of “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” are Russian princes: Vladimir, Boris, Gleb, Svyatopolk the Accursed, Yaroslav.

In “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” the idea of ​​brotherly love and obedience of the younger to the elders is sanctified: “Behold, I go to my brother and the river: “Be my father, you are my brother and elders.” What do you say, my Lord? (“Monuments of Literature Ancient Rus'", Moscow, " Fiction", 1978, p. 280).

“The behavior of Boris and Gleb, who did not raise their hands against their elder brother even in defense of their lives, sanctified the idea of ​​clan seniority in the system of princely hierarchy: princes who did not violate this commandment became saints... all princes are brothers, but the elders are obliged to protect the younger ones and patronize them , and the younger ones selflessly submit to the elders.” (“Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'”, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1978, commentary by L.A. Dmitriev).

In “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” there are many speeches by the characters. Before their murder, both Gleb and Boris make long speeches - prayers, which reflect their humility, goodness and submission to their brother Svyatopolk. Both brothers were defenders of Rus', both were simple and humble. Gleb said in prayer: “They are killing me for no one knows why, no one knows for what guilt... my soul is ready to appear before you, Lord.” Boris, in his appeal to God, said: “Glory to you for making me worthy to escape the seductions of this deceptive life.” Boris and Gleb - "Christ's saints."

A characteristic monument for the beginning of Old Russian literature is the “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”.

“The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor in the 80s. XI century, plot-driven and dynamic. It contains many everyday monastic and secular details, although the description of everyday life is restrained.

Theodosius, in the past a humble youth, running away with strangers from home in order to serve God, putting cutting chains on his belt until he bled, baking prosphora, wearing beggarly clothes, sincerely wanting to devote himself to the faith, is repeatedly beaten by his mother and subjected to ridicule by his peers. Later, Theodosius (translated from Greek “Theodosius” means “given, dedicated to God”) still manages to leave his mother, get to Kyiv and come to the “holiness” of Anthony the Great - a hermit recognized by the church as the founder of monasticism.

Subsequently, Theodosius becomes the owner of the monastery, influences political life countries, everyone reveres him for his holiness and righteousness. “Our father Theodosius surpassed everyone in humility and obedience, and in diligence, and asceticism, and deeds, for his body was powerful and strong and he helped everyone with pleasure, carrying water and firewood from the forest on his shoulders, and he stayed awake at night, praising in prayers God." (“Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'”, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1978, p. 331).

The hagiographical genre requires the traditional components of a saint’s biography: the hero’s pious parents, his desire for God from childhood, special humility and obedience, asceticism, the creation of miracles, success in the fight against demons (who in the “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” either scatter flour or leaven for baking bread is poured). These motives are present in this life. But at the same time, there are deviations from the canon: Theodosius’s mother does not want her son to devote himself to God, she beats Theodosius and ties him up. And the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery are completely earthly people who, instead of praying, talk to each other in their cells.

The “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” mentions Prince Izyaslav Sr., son of Yaroslav the Wise, Grand Duke of Kiev from 1054 to 1073 (he is shown as a Christ-loving man), Nikon - monk, abbot, compiler of the chronicle code preceding the “Tale of Bygone Years”, Prince Gleb - son Yaroslav Yaroslavich...

Theodosius works miracles: he foresees the appearance of honey, wine, and bread in the monastery. He teaches monks not to worry about tomorrow. At the same time, Theodosius really helps people, as, for example, he helped a poor widow by talking with the judge and freeing her from oppression. “Theodosius was an intercessor for many before the judges and princes, delivering them... for no one dared to disobey him, knowing his righteousness and holiness.” (“Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'”, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1978, pp. 384 - 385).

“The life of a saint is a solemn parade of his life, a writer honoring him”... (“Monuments of the literature of Ancient Rus'”, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1978, introductory article by D.S. Likhachev, p. 11). “The Life of Theodosius, although essentially the first Russian life, brought completeness to the biographical genre. The story about a person is told in this work by highlighting only some moments of his life: those in which he reaches, as it were, his highest self-manifestation.” (Ibid., p. 19).

An example of hagiographic literature can be considered the work of the first half of the 13th century - “The Life of Abraham of Smolensk,” written by his student Ephraim. It has a traditional introduction for life - the author’s appeal to God, the author’s own sinfulness emphasized: “And I am sinful and unworthy Ephraim and in laziness ... abiding, and in the last of all, and idle, and being empty of all good deeds” ... (“Monuments of Literature Ancient Rus'", XIII century, Moscow, "Fiction", 1981, p. 96).

The hero of this life had everything positive qualities and was from a very respectable family. He was well-read and educated, possessed the art of oratory, and painted icons. He was popular in Smolensk, which caused envy among the clergy and Abraham was expelled from the city. When there was a drought in the city, they remembered him. Abraham performed a miracle through prayer: it rained. Abraham was installed as abbot in the monastery, where he lived to his end, remaining in asceticism, prayer, patience, humility, alms and love.

A remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature is “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. This work combines elements of a military story and hagiography. This work is both a princely biography and a new type of church life - the life of a holy commander. The author glorifies the military and political successes of the prince, emphasizing that “he was both a warrior and a saint, a defender of the land from the “other believers” - the Swedes, Germans, Lithuanians, Chuds.” (“Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'”, XIII century, commentary by V.I. Okhotnikova, p. 602). The main episodes of the life are the Battle of the Neva, the destruction of Koporye, the liberation of Pskov, Ice battle. The main character is a wonderful warrior who “won, not conquered.” He was beautiful “like no one else, and his voice was like a trumpet among the people, his face was like the face of Joseph... his strength was from the strength of Samson, and God gave him the wisdom of Solomon...” (“Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus', XIII century , Moscow, “Fiction”, 1981, p. 427). He was not seduced by wealth, erected churches and cities, judged truthfully and “suffer God hard, leave the earthly kingdom” (ibid., p. 438), became a monk, accepted the schema and gave his spirit to God in peace. This is the content of this monument.

“During the period of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pachomius Logofet and Epiphamy the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church figures of Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, who supported the great Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde, with whose name the formation of Russian national identity is associated." . (“History of Russia”, Moscow, “Prospekt”, 2002, p. 119).

Russian literature of the 14th - 15th centuries, including hagiographical literature, inherited its journalistic quality from Old Russian literature. Thus, the Novgorod monument, “The Tale of the Life of Mikhail Klopsky,” is based on local legends about the holy fool Mikhail. But this is not so much a life as “one of bright manifestations ideological struggle of the late 70s. XV century." (“Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'”, second half of the 15th century, commentary by L.A. Dmitrieva, p. 618). It reveals pro-Moscow ideas - Klopsky advocated the subordination of Novgorod to Moscow. Church sermon is combined with the idea of ​​the dominant role of Moscow, a thought characteristic of Russian literature of the 14th and 15th centuries.

In the 16th century, the hagiographic narrative underwent changes due to the appearance of specific everyday sketches and the use of folklore material. Their entertaining and democratic nature increases. In this regard, the “Tale of Peter and Fevronia” is indicative, defined by the author as “The Tale of the Lives of the Saints...” “This story, written by Ermolai-Erasmus, apparently at the suggestion of Metropolitan Macarius, although it became widespread as a hagiography, was so poetic that Metropolitan Macarius did not include it in the collection of “spiritually beneficial” hagiographic literature - “The Great Chetya Menaion”, since the author, “a well-educated church writer, who was given the goal of giving a biography of the saints, created a work that essentially had nothing in common with the hagiography genre." (“Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'”, XV - XVI centuries, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1984, commentary by R.P. Dmitrieva, p. 764). This work represents the beginning of the genre of secular everyday stories.

The further development of hagiographic literature corresponded general evolution medieval Russian literature, in which a further process of secularization and closer proximity to the reader was observed. The positions of the hagiographer become clearer, bringing him closer to the memoirist. The writer's views become clearer. In general, Russian literature of the 17th century was a transitional stage to the culture of modern times.

Hagiography is a fairly stable genre, but in the 17th century it also acquired a secular, democratic direction, gradually turning into a biographical story. The most revealing in this regard is “The Tale of Ulyaniya Osoryina,” written by Ulyaniya’s son

Osorina - a real-life Murom landowner of the 16th century, revered as a saint of the city of Murom since the 17th century.

“The Tale of Ulyaniya Osoryina” combined the features of a narrative everyday story and a hagiography. The peculiarity of this work is that it is the first biography of a noblewoman in Russian literature. An attractive image of a Russian woman, a housewife, was created; she “stayed all night without sleep, in prayer and in needlework, and in spinning, and in hoop work.” This story is dominated by everyday details, there are historical facts(mention of the terrible famine during the reign of Boris Godunov). The heroine is ideal from the point of view of Christian morality: she spends her time in prayer, gives alms, feeds the hungry with bread, which was sweet with her prayer, although “She herself is dying of hunger,” she was merciful to her servants. She was “from her youth meek and silent, unbullsy and unpretentious, raked off from laughter and all kinds of games” and at the same time Ulyanya was an ordinary woman, surrounded by family and everyday life: she “ruled the house.” She does not become a nun, although she has such a desire. She was not a martyr or a saint in the traditional hagiographic sense, although she followed Christian commandments. “The Tale of Ulyaniya Osoryina” is a new type of life - “folk life”, far from hagiographic stencils.

Traditional forms of life were also destroyed by the ideologist of the Old Believers, Archpriest Avvakum, who became the founder of a new genre in Russian literature - autobiography of confession. His “Life” became “the forerunner of the discovery of new artistic principles of depicting a person, mastered by Russian literature much later - during the period of development and formation of realistic prose.” (N.S. Demnikova, commentary, p. 638, “Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus'”, XVII century, book two, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1989).

The “Life” of Archpriest Avvakum is close to the “folk life” - “the same accuracy, the same detailed life, everyday life, the same folk miracles to help people, the same everyday vernacular and everyday terminology. Except that everything about Avvakum is bolder, more talented, brighter, more significant, and life itself is sanctified by an ideological struggle, which is not found in the folk lives of the 17th century.” (D.S. Likhachev, introductory article “The Seventeenth Century in Russian Literature”, PLDR, XVII century, book one, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1988, p. 13).

Colloquial speech addressed to the interlocutor and the reader (such as “Forgive me, I’ll talk to you about my ignorance”), denunciation of the authorities and church orders, a realistic depiction of one’s life, everyday life, vivid characteristics of the tsar and patriarch, skill in recreating Russian reality of the 50s. 70s XVII century - all this makes the “Life” of Avvakum one of the most interesting and original monuments of medieval Russian literature. This is one of a kind, innovative work. It has a special structure: a chain of memories addressed to the spiritual father - monk Epiphanius, united by a single storyline, telling about the choice life path and the vicissitudes of the hero’s fate, about punishments for the fact that he “reproaches Nikonov’s heresy.” Talking about the horrors of his life, Avvakum does not frighten the reader, but, on the contrary, instills in him the idea that with God’s help everything can be overcome and that the only fear is “the fear of God.” This is the hero of this monument.

Although the “Life” of Avvakum contains traditional elements of the hagiographic genre (description of the hero’s family, his childhood, the ability to heal the possessed), this work as a whole is already an autobiographical story in which human feelings are present.

Thus, over the centuries, the genre of hagiography has transformed from a strictly canonized work about the life of a saint into a story. But the genre of hagiography itself did not die in the further development of Russian literature, which had already gone beyond the framework of medieval Old Russian literature. In the 18th century, lives continued to be read, old ones were copied, and new ones were created. The genre of hagiography continued in the 19th century. For example, in the works of N.S. Leskov: in his “Enchanted Wanderer” there are hagiographic motifs. The life continued to live in church literature. Although the lives are somewhat didactic in nature, they still make for fascinating and entertaining reading.

WITHlist of used literature

1. “Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus'” (PLDR), Moscow, “Fiction”, 1978.

2. PLDR: XIII century, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1981.

3. PLDR: second half of the 15th century, Moscow, “Fiction”.

4. PLDR: XVII century, book two, Moscow, “Fiction, 1989.

5. PLDR: XVII century, Moscow, “Fiction”, 1988.

6. “History of Russia”, Moscow, “Prospekt”, 2002.

7. “Old Russian Literature”, Moscow, “Heritage”, 1995.

8. “Culture of Russia: IX - XX centuries”, Moscow, “Prostor”, 1996.

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CREATION

SCHOOL ESSAYS

Portrayal of a hero in ancient Russian literature

“The first historical works allow the people to realize themselves in the historical process, think about their role in world history, understand the roots of modern events and their responsibility to the future.”
Academician D. S. Likhachev

Old Russian literature, which includes epics, fairy tales, lives of saints and (later) stories, is not just a cultural monument. This is a unique opportunity to get acquainted with the life, everyday life, spiritual world and moral principles of our distant ancestors, a kind of bridge connecting modernity and antiquity.
So, what is he like, the ancient Russian hero of literature?

The first thing that should be noted is that the depiction of man in general in ancient Russian literature is very peculiar. The author deliberately avoids precision, certainty, and detail that indicate a specific character. Professional activity or belonging to a certain social category determines personality. If we have a monk in front of us, his monastic qualities are important, if a prince - princely, if a hero - heroic. The life of the saints is depicted specifically outside of time and space, being a standard of ethical standards.
The character of the hero of the story is revealed through a description of his actions (deeds, exploits). The author does not pay attention to the reasons that prompted the hero to do this or that act; the motivation remains behind the scenes.
The Old Russian hero is an integral and uncompromising personality who lives by the principle: “I see the goal, I don’t notice the obstacles, I believe in myself.” His image seems to be carved out of a granite monolith; his actions are based on unshakable confidence in the rightness of his cause. His activities are aimed at the benefit of his native land, for the benefit of his fellow citizens. The epic hero, for example, is a collective image of the defender of the Motherland, albeit endowed with certain supernatural abilities, a model of civil behavior.
Whoever the hero is, he is courageous, honest, kind, generous, devoted to his homeland and people, never seeks his own benefit, an Orthodox Christian. This is a strong, proud and unusually stubborn man. Obviously, this fantastic stubbornness, so superbly described by N.V. Gogol in the story “Taras Bulba,” allows a person to achieve the task he has defined for himself. For example, St. Sergius of Radonezh flatly refuses to become a metropolitan, Fevronia, contrary to his social status, becomes a princess, Ilya Muromets, not only defends Kyiv, but, according to his own understanding, exterminates the enemies of the Russian land.
Characteristic feature The hero of ancient Russian literature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of different nationalities. Despite all the patriotism, there is no aggressiveness. Thus, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the fight against the Polovtsians is seen as the defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. In the epic “The Legend of the March of the Kyiv Heroes to Constantinople” “...they release the young Tugarin to Constantinople and teach him to conjure so that they will not come to Rus' for centuries.”
Saint Sergius of Radonezh, blessing Prince Dmitry for the battle with Mamai, says: “Go against the barbarians, rejecting great doubt, and God will help you. You will defeat your enemies and return healthy to your fatherland.”
Female images of ancient Russian literature convey creativity, the warmth of the family hearth, love and fidelity. These are unusually subtle and intelligent representatives of the fair half of humanity, who know how to achieve their goals not by force, but by reason.
The man of ancient Rus' is inextricably linked with the nature around him. And even if in ancient Russian literature there is no description of the landscape in the usual to modern man understanding of this word, but the presence of living, animated forests and fields, rivers and lakes, flowers and herbs, animals and birds create the impression of an inextricable connection between people and the living world around them.
The description of nature is most clearly expressed in the “Word...”, where natural phenomena, the animal world empathizes with the hero:
"...The night has passed, and the bloody dawns
They announce disaster in the morning.
A cloud is moving in from the sea
For four princely tents....."
In all other works, the landscape is drawn extremely poorly, sometimes there is almost no landscape at all.
However, St. Sergius seeks solitude among virgin forests, and Fevronia turns tree stumps into large trees with branches and foliage.

In general, we understand the language in which ancient Russian works of literature were written, because, although it is ancient, it is still Russian!
There are definitely present outdated words(guni - outerwear, eliko - only, monk - monk, adamant - diamond, span - measure of length, incense - incense), the meaning of which is difficult to guess right away, but in the context of the work one can understand their meaning (prayer - worship, zegzitsa - cuckoo). Old Russian literature uses very bright, lively and figurative language. There is a lot of dialogic speech, and colloquial vocabulary is used accordingly, making these works unusually folk. In ancient Russian literature there are many epithets (silver shores, pearly soul) and comparisons (galloped like an ermine, swam like a white goldeneye, flew like a falcon, ran like a wolf like a cuckoo, calls to the Jurassic). Literary works melodious, musical and unhurried due to the large number of vowels and sonorous sounds.
It is worth mentioning that the author does not use such an important thing as a portrait, without which we cannot imagine modern literature. Perhaps in those days the idea of ​​a particular hero was general, and there was no need to describe his appearance, since it (the idea) was unspoken.
Also, a means of artistic expression is epic hyperbolization and idealization.
The technique of hyperbolization is widely used in epics; the capabilities of many heroes and objects are exaggerated, enlivening and emphasizing events. (For example, the description of Idol Skoropeevich in “The Heroic Word”:
"And he is tall, not according to custom,
Between his eyes the arrow goes well,
Between his shoulders there is a large fathom,
His eyes are like bowls
And his head is like a beer cauldron.)
The technique of idealization is a method of artistic generalization that allows the author to create an image based on his ideas about what he should be (saints are ideal, family values ​​are unshakable).
All elements of the composition (Prologue => Plot of action => Development of action => Climax => Denouement => Epilogue) are present only in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, and in epics, stories and lives there is no prologue, and the starting point of the action is the plot.
The spiritual values ​​defended by the heroes of ancient Russian literature are still relevant today, almost a thousand years later. National independence, cohesion and unity of the nation, family values, Christian values ​​(= universal human values) are close and understandable to every citizen of Russia. The connection of times is obvious.
The first moral works, socio-political works, clarify social norms of behavior, allow the ideas of everyone’s responsibility for the fate of the people and the country to be more widely disseminated, and cultivate patriotism and at the same time respect for other peoples.
The richness of the Russian language is the result of almost a thousand years of development of Russian literature.
In Ancient Rus' there was beauty of moral depth, moral subtlety and at the same time moral power.
To become familiar with ancient Russian literature is great happiness and great joy.

References:
B.A. Rybakov "World of History" 1984
D.S. Likhachev "Anthology of Old Russian Literature"

The prince was the ideal hero in the chronicles. It was created by the chronicler in “monumental grandeur”, as in the mosaics and frescoes of the 11th–13th centuries. The chronicler was interested in the official image of the prince, his significant actions as a historical figure, and human qualities remained outside of attention. The ideal image of the hero was created in accordance with certain canons2: the virtues and virtues of the prince were listed, which should have caused worship (powerful, independent, handsome in face, brave, skilled in military affairs, courageous, destroyer of enemies, guardian of the state) In such works of ancient Russian literature as lives, asceticism, the feat of service to the fatherland, the holiness and “lordship” of the lives of Russian saints are glorified. Their images combined an example of selflessness, passionate service to an idea, and expressed the folk ideals of the spiritual beauty of the Russian person (Theodosius of Pechersk, Sergius of Radonezh, etc.). In the stories about saints, their greatness, their ideality is conveyed against an expressive-emotional background, which creates the expressive-emotional style of literature of the late XIV-XV centuries. This is especially evident in hagiographic literature, which elevates the life of a saint to a high feat, to an ideal. In ancient literature the saint is called a “soldier of Christ.” He is an ascetic, the main thing about him is his feat, which he performs as a warrior. For example, Epiphanius the Wise calls Stephen of Perm “courageous brave,” i.e. hero. The image of Sergius of Radonezh is sublime and heroic. In the literature of the 11th–13th centuries, an epic style is also evident in the depiction of heroes. It is especially noticeable in those works that are associated with oral folk art. As in folklore, the characters in the chronicle and the story are characterized “by one major act” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”). Both in the Lay and in the Tale there is a collective hero, a folk hero - a defender of the homeland. He is distinguished by strength and courage. The authors also transfer the exploits of his squad onto him (Bui-Tur Vsevolod, Svyatoslav, Evpatiy Kolovrat). The image of a hero unites with his squad and grows into a hero - this is a collective image. Ancient literature created heroic characters of women. These are images of wives, mothers accompanying their loved ones on military campaigns and battles with enemies, widows mourning the dead. Vladimir Monomakh writes with love and warmth about the widow of his murdered son, like a dove on a dry tree. The image of the wife of the Ryazan prince Fyodor Eupraxia, who threw herself from the wall along with her infant (“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”), is beautiful. The ideal of a woman in Ancient Rus', expressed in service to loved ones, love for the homeland, contempt for the enemy, is embodied in chronicles, military stories, and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The image of Yaroslavna, faithful, loving woman, created in the song and folklore tradition.
This is how the image of the hero of ancient literature and artistic methods of depicting him undergo changes.

Old Russian literature - what is it? Works of the 11th-17th centuries include not only literary works, but also historical texts (chronicle stories and annals), descriptions of travel (which were called walks), lives (narratives of the lives of saints), teachings, epistles, examples of the oratorical genre, as well as some texts of business content. The themes of ancient Russian literature, as you can see, are very rich. All works contain elements of emotional illumination of life and artistic creativity.

Authorship

At school, students study what ancient Russian literature is and take notes on basic concepts. They probably know that most works dating back to this period did not retain their author's names. The literature of Ancient Rus' is mostly anonymous and therefore similar to oral folk art. The texts were handwritten and distributed through correspondence - copying, and were often revised to suit new literary tastes, the political situation, and the literary abilities and personal preferences of the copyists. Therefore, the works have come to us in different editions and versions. Their comparative analysis helps researchers restore the history of a particular monument and draw a conclusion about which option is closest to the original source, the author’s text, and also trace the history of its changes.

Sometimes, in very rare cases, we have the author’s version, and often in later lists we can find the monuments of ancient Russian literature closest to the original. Therefore, they should be studied on the basis of all available versions of the works. They are available in large city libraries, museums, and archives. Many texts have been preserved in large quantities lists, some are limited. The only option is presented, for example, “The Tale of Misfortune”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”.

"Etiquette" and repeatability

It is necessary to note such a feature of Old Russian literature as the repetition in different texts belonging to different eras of certain characteristics, situations, epithets, metaphors, comparisons. The works are characterized by so-called etiquette: the hero behaves or acts in one way or another, since he follows the concepts of his time about how to behave in various circumstances. And events (for example, battles) are described using constant forms and images.

10th century literature

We continue to talk about what it is. Take notes on the main points if you are afraid of forgetting something. majestic, solemn, traditional. Its origin dates back to the 10th century, or more precisely to its end, when, after the adoption of Christianity as state religion Historical and official texts written in Church Slavonic began to appear in Rus'. Through the mediation of Bulgaria (which was the source of these works), Ancient Rus' joined the developed literature of Byzantium and the South Slavs. Feudal state led by Kiev, in order to realize their interests, it was necessary to create their own texts and introduce new genres. With the help of literature, it was planned to instill patriotism, establish the political and historical unity of the people and ancient Russian princes, and expose their strife.

Literature of the 11th - early 13th centuries.

The themes and objectives of the literature of this period (the fight against the Cumans and Pechenegs - external enemies, questions of the connection between Russian history and world history, the struggle for the Kiev throne of princes, the history of the emergence of the state) determined the nature of the style of this time, which D. S. Likhachev called monumental historicism. The emergence of chronicle writing in our country is associated with the beginning Russian literature.

11th century

The first lives of Theodosius of Pechersk, Boris and Gleb date back to this century. They are distinguished by their attention to contemporary problems, literary excellence, and vitality.

Patriotism, maturity of socio-political thought, journalisticism and high skill are marked by the monuments of oratory "The Sermon on Law and Grace", written by Hilarion in the first half of the 11th century, and "Words and Teachings" (1130-1182). The “teaching” of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh, who lived from 1053 to 1125, is imbued with deep humanity and concern for the fate of the state.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

It is impossible to avoid mentioning this work when the topic of the article is ancient Russian literature. What is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"? This greatest work Ancient Rus', created by an unknown author in the 80s of the 12th century. The text is devoted to a specific topic - the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 by Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich. The author is interested not only in the fate of the Russian land, he also recalls the events of the present and the distant past, therefore the true heroes of “The Lay” are not Igor or Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, who also receives a lot of attention in the work, but the Russian land, the people are what it is based on Old Russian literature. “The Word” is connected in many ways with the narrative traditions of its time. But, as in any work of genius, it also contains original features, manifested in rhythmic sophistication, linguistic richness, the use of techniques characteristic of oral folk art, and their reinterpretation, civic pathos and lyricism.

National patriotic theme

It is raised during the period of the Horde yoke (from 1243 to the end of the 15th century) by ancient Russian literature. in the works of this time? Let's try to answer this question. The style of monumental historicism acquires a certain expressive tone: the texts are lyrical and have tragic pathos. The idea of ​​a strong centralized princely power acquired great importance at this time. Some stories and chronicles (for example, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”) report on the horrors of the enemy’s invasion and the brave struggle against the enslavers of the Russian people. This is where patriotism comes into play. The image of the defender of the land, the ideal prince, was reflected most clearly in the work “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” written in the 70s of the 13th century.

The reader of “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” is presented with a picture of the greatness of nature and the power of princes. This work is only an excerpt from an incomplete text that has reached us. It is dedicated to the events of the first half of the 13th century - the difficult time of the Horde yoke.

New style: expressive-emotional

In the period 14-50s. In the 15th century, ancient Russian literature changed. What is the expressive-emotional style that emerged at this time? It reflects the ideology and events of the period of unification of northeastern Rus' around Moscow and the formation of a centralized Russian state. Then interest in personality, human psychology, and his inner spiritual world began to appear in literature (although still only within the framework of religious consciousness). This led to an increase in the subjective nature of works.

And so a new style appeared - expressive-emotional, in which verbal sophistication and “weaving of words” (that is, the use of ornamental prose) should be noted. These new techniques were intended to reflect the desire to depict the feelings of an individual person.

In the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. stories arise that go back in their plot to the novelistic nature of oral stories ("The Tale of the Merchant Basarga", "The Tale of Dracula" and others). The number of translated works of a fictional nature is noticeably increasing; the legend genre was widespread at that time (for example, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”).

"The Tale of Peter and Fevronia"

As mentioned above, works of ancient Russian literature also borrow some features of legends. In the mid-16th century, Ermolai-Erasmus, an ancient Russian publicist and writer, created the famous “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia,” which is one of the most significant texts in Russian literature. It is based on the legend of how, thanks to her intelligence, a peasant girl became a princess. Fairy-tale techniques are widely used in the work, and social motives are also heard.

Characteristics of 16th century literature

In the 16th century, the official nature of the texts intensified, distinctive feature literature becomes solemn and pompous. Such works are widely distributed, the purpose of which is to regulate political, spiritual, everyday and legal life. A striking example is “The Great Ones,” which are a set of texts consisting of 12 volumes, which were intended for home reading for every month. At the same time, “Domostroy” was created, which sets out the rules of behavior in the family, gives advice on housekeeping, as well as relationships between people. Fiction is increasingly penetrating the historical works of that period in order to make the narrative entertaining.

17th century

Works of ancient Russian literature of the 17th century are noticeably transformed. The art of the so-called new era begins to take shape. The process of democratization is underway, the themes of works are expanding. The role of the individual in history is changing due to the events of the Peasant War (late 16th - early 17th centuries), as well as the Time of Troubles. The actions of Boris Godunov, Ivan the Terrible, Vasily Shuisky and other historical characters are now explained not only by divine will, but also by the personality traits of each of them. A special genre appears - democratic satire, where church and government regulations, legal proceedings (for example, “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”), clerical practice (“Kalyazin Petition”).

"Life" of Avvakum, everyday stories

In the 17th century, an autobiographical work was written by those who lived from 1620 to 1682. Archpriest Avvakum - "Life". It is presented in the textbook "Old Russian Literature" (grade 9). The peculiarity of the text is its rich, lively language, either colloquial and everyday, or lofty bookish.

During this period, everyday stories about Frol Skobeev, Savva Grudtsyn and others were also created, reflecting the original character of Old Russian literature. Translated collections of short stories appear and poetry develops (famous authors - Sylvester Medvedev, Simeon Polotskits, Karion Istomin).

The history of ancient Russian literature ends with the 17th century, and the next stage begins - the literature of modern times.

It speaks about the popularity of the story large number lists that have survived to this day. The story combines two ancient folklore motifs - about the snake fighter and about the wise maiden. In a number of lists, the “Tale” is called a hagiography, but Ermolai-Erasmus was unable to depart from the folk poetic tradition in the depiction of the heroes and in the construction of the plot. Probably because of this genre uncertainty, the predominance of folklore principles in the narrative about the “new miracle workers of Murom”, the work of Ermolai-Erasmus was not included by Metropolitan Macarius in the Great Menaion of the Four.

The image of the “wise maiden” F. goes back to a Russian fairy tale. The daughter of a beekeeper (“tree climber”) from the village of Laskovo, Ryazan land, is famous for her good deeds, intelligence and insight. She is a faithful and caring wife who knows how to fight for her happiness. F. embodies love that no one can defeat evil people, nor the force of circumstances. Researchers have more than once compared the ancient Russian story with the Western European novel about Tristan and Isolde, who also encounter various obstacles on the path to happiness.

The main character is active, she creates her own destiny and the destiny of Prince Peter, over whom she wins a moral victory. The image of P. plays a less noticeable role in the narrative; it seems to be overshadowed by the bright and colorful figure of F.

Prince P. of Murom, having stood up for the honor of his brother’s wife, fights a flying kite that has taken to her. Having mastered the Agric sword, P. wins, but the poisonous blood of the snake causes incurable ulcers and scabs on his body. F. heals the prince, setting a condition: she will cure P. if he takes her as his wife. The prince does not want to marry a simple peasant woman. But after a second appeal to F. for help, the ashamed prince takes the peasant girl as his wife.

F.'s wisdom is manifested not only in deeds and actions, but also in the ability to speak in allegories and riddles. This is not how the princely envoy understands her, in response to whose questions F. says: “It’s bad when the courtyard has no ears, and the house has no eyes”; “Father and mother went to cry, and brother went through the legs of death to look into the eyes.” F. herself explains the meaning of what was said: the ears of the house are a dog, and the eyes are a child. They, each in their own way, will warn the owner about the approach of a stranger. The heroine's father and mother went to the funeral, and her brother, a beekeeper, went to practice his dangerous craft, climbing tall trees. With his wise speeches, F. also baffles her future husband.

After F. becomes the prince’s wife, the evil boyars and their wives, “like a barking bark,” do not want to be ruled by a woman of peasant origin, and strive to expel F. from the city and separate the heroes. However, even here the power of love prevails. F. wants to take with him the most precious thing - his spouse. P. renounces his reign and leaves Murom together with F. The heroes of the story do not value power and wealth. This is how P. and F.’s love overcomes social obstacles. A certain anti-boyar tendency is noticeable in this episode. The creator of the story emphasizes that the “evil” boyars fought over power: everyone “would like to have power.” The townspeople beg P. to rule Murom as before. Returning to the city, P. and F. rule not with rage, but with truth and justice, and treat their subjects not as mercenaries, but as true shepherds. They are compared to merciful and warm-hearted child-loving parents.

Neither social inequality nor “evil” boyars can separate the heroes. They are inseparable even in the face of death. Having simultaneously accepted the monastic rank, P. and F. pray to God: “May she be reposed in one hour”; and bequeathed to bury themselves in the same tomb.

The description of the death of the saints is especially expressive. Just before her death, “blessed” F. embroiders “air” with the faces of saints for the cathedral. The prince, feeling his death approaching, sends to tell his wife that he is waiting for her to leave this world together. F. asks her master to wait until she finishes her work. After P.’s third appeal to her (“I’m leaving this world, I can’t wait for you anymore”), the princess-nun, who managed to embroider the face and hand of the saint, responds to the call of her husband. Having stuck a needle into the unsewn cover and wound a thread around it, F. sends to P. to say that she is ready.

Even a posthumous miracle - an important element in the composition of a hagiographic narrative - reaffirms the inseparability of the marital ties of the heroes. People who sought to separate P. and F. during their lives separate them twice after death: P.’s body was laid in the city, “in the cathedral church of the Most Pure Mother of God,” and F.’s body was buried “outside the city,” in the Vozdvizhensky Church of the Convent. The next morning everyone sees a miracle: the bodies of the prince and princess end up in a common tomb.

The images of P. and F., beloved by the people, were captured more than once by icon painters. By order of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich and Tsarina Irina, the cover of the relics of the Murom miracle workers was embroidered - a wonderful monument of gold embroidery of medieval Rus' (1594).

Old Russian storytelling attracted the attention of writers and composers of modern times. Thus, the heroine of I. A. Bunin’s story “Clean Monday” (1944), who chose the path of a nun for herself, quotes from memory two fragments from the story (the opening lines and words about the end of the earthly life of the saints). The “inseparable love” of the heroes of the ancient legend inspired A. M. Remizov.

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