Foreign and domestic policies of Paul 1. Foreign and domestic policies during the reign of Paul I

After the death of Catherine II the Great, the Russian throne was headed by her son Paul I. The personality of Emperor Paul I was dual and incomprehensible: either a genius of the Enlightenment, or a madman.

Why didn't Paul I continue Catherine's policy?

As a child, he did not receive enough maternal love, since Empress Elizabeth strictly limited his communication with Catherine. At an older age, a warm relationship with the mother was never achieved.

Paul could not forgive Catherine I for the conspiracy against her father, as a result of whose murder she received supreme power. And the rumors circulating at that time that Pavel was actually the son of Saltykov and did not belong to the Romanov dynasty only added fuel to the fire of hatred towards the Empress.

Therefore, immediately after her death, both internal and foreign policy Paul I was fundamentally different from the policies of his mother.

Domestic policy of Paul I

The first decree of the new Emperor was a decree on succession to the throne, according to which, after the death of the monarch, power passes to the eldest representative of his male offspring, and in the absence of such, to his brother or his sons.

This decree stopped the period of palace coups, as a result of which the throne was occupied in most cases by women.

Emperor Paul I was able to significantly improve the condition of the army. Thanks to strict army discipline, he controlled not only ordinary soldiers, but also generals.

During the reign of Catherine, it was quite common for military men with high ranks and titles to sit at home and attend social events, and were never seen on the battlefield in their lives. Paul sent such officers to Siberia, personally tearing off their epaulettes.

Since Empress Catherine was a noble connoisseur of gloss, beauty and expensive things, Emperor Paul I actually completely removed this from the life of society. He introduced a ban on the import of books and music from Europe. Young people were forbidden to go abroad to study.

The emperor regulated all spheres of social life, some of his instructions reached the point of absurdity: it was clearly regulated what dresses women should wear, what time the entire empire should go to bed and what books to read.

The Emperor banned waltz dancing and wearing top hats in the country. This was due to the fact that he personally did not like England very much. Violation of any prohibition carried with it the possibility of being arrested.

Naturally, society, which still retained the aestheticism of Catherine the Great in its memory, was extremely indignant at such a policy. Antipathy on the part of the people significantly accelerated the moment of Paul's overthrow.

Paul's Foreign Policy

In conducting foreign policy, Paul, unlike Catherine, was guided not by the interests of the state, but by his own personal motives. Thus, hatred of England resulted in a series of military actions led by the disgraced commander Suvorov, who managed to liberate the territory of Northern Italy from French emancipation.

After the capture of Malta by the English army, Paul created an anti-English coalition to liberate it, since at that moment he already held the title of Grand Master of the Order of Malta. In 1800, Paul began planning joint military campaigns against India to free them from English rule.

Despite his open hatred of the idle lifestyle of France, Paul I felt an inexplicable sympathy for Louis XVIII. The emperor regularly gave him expensive gifts and tried in every possible way to establish friendly relations. This is the whole paradoxical duality of the Emperor’s personality.

In November 1796, after the death of Catherine II, Emperor Paul 1 ascended the Russian throne. The short, but extremely important and eventful reign of one of the most mysterious and controversial figures in Russian history began. In order to understand and correctly evaluate what happened during the four and a half years of Pavlov’s reign, it is necessary to remember that at the time of his accession to the throne, the emperor was already 42 years old, i.e. he was a mature man with an established character, established political convictions and ideas about the needs of Russia And the best ways managing it. The character and political views of the emperor were formed in very difficult and unusual conditions.

The birth of Paul in 1754 was greeted at the court of grandmother Elizabeth Petrovna as a long-awaited event, since the empress was extremely worried about the continuation of the dynasty. Immediately after birth, the child was taken to Elizabeth’s chambers, where his parents were allowed only with her special permission. In fact, until the coup of 1762. Pavel is raised without the participation of his parents, not really knowing either his mother or his father. The latter was completely indifferent to him. It is significant that in the manifesto about Peter’s accession to the throne, neither Paul nor Catherine were even mentioned. From 1761, N.I. Panin was appointed Pavel’s chief educator.

Panin sincerely became attached to his pupil. Himself a supporter of the Enlightenment, he dreamed of raising Paul to be an ideal sovereign for Russia. And indeed, according to the memoirs of his contemporaries, young Pavel was a well-educated romantic youth who also believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism. He was prepared for the state career and he grew up with the consciousness that he would have to rule Russia.

In 1773, Pavel married Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, who was named Natalya Alekseevna upon baptism into Orthodoxy. The young man, who had just left the care of teachers and educators, fell madly in love with his young wife, but the happiness was short-lived - three years later Natalya Alekseevna died in childbirth. A few months later, Paul married again to Princess Sophia Dorothea of ​​Württemberg, who received the name Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy. In 1777, their first-born, the future Emperor Alexander 1, was born, and in 1779, their second son, Constantine. They were taken from their parents and raised under the supervision of their grandmother. In 1781-1782 Pavel and Maria Feodorovna traveled around Europe, where they made a favorable impression on European courts. But during the trip, Pavel behaved carelessly, openly criticizing the policies of Catherine and her favorites. Apparently, this became known to the empress, who, upon her son’s return, tried to remove him from the court by donating the Gatchina manor, where Paul henceforth spent most of his time. Like Peter I once did in Preobrazhenskoye and Peter III in Oranienbaum, Paul created his own small army in Gatchina and enthusiastically took up drill, taking the Prussian army as a model. military system. Discipline, order, and a certain asceticism seemed to be contrasted with the luxury and disorderly life of the St. Petersburg court. He enjoyed the unquestioning submission of his soldiers, dreaming of a time when all of Russia would submit to him in the same way. He believed that for a true autocrat, Catherine was too feminine and soft and liberal. The harmfulness of such a rule was increased in his eyes by the revolutionary danger, especially after the collapse of the monarchy in France. Under these conditions, Pavel saw the salvation of Russia only in strengthening power.

Paul's intention to deal with the rebels with the help of cannons should not, however, be considered only a manifestation of ruthlessness or political myopia. Behind this there was a certain system of views, according to which, in order to avoid revolution, it was necessary, with the help of military discipline and police measures, to preserve the existing regime for as long as possible, removing corrupting elements from it. According to Paul, this primarily concerned various manifestations of personal and public freedom and was expressed in the lifestyle and behavior of the nobles, in their disregard for public service, in elements of self-government, in the excessive luxury of the court, in relative freedom of thought and self-expression. Paul saw the reasons for the disintegration in the mistakes of Catherine's policies.

Paul contrasted the Enlightenment ideals of civil liberty with the ideals medieval knighthood with his ideas about nobility, loyalty, honor, courage, and service to the sovereign.

And finally, on November 6, 1796, when the empress died, Paul received the long-awaited crown and power. The spirit of the military changed the appearance of the court and the capital.

Domestic policy of Paul I

The very first steps of Paul the Emperor demonstrated his intention to act contrary to his mother’s policies in everything. This desire colored, in fact, his entire reign. So, of course, it is not at all liberal sympathies that explain the release of Pavel Novikov, Radishchev, T. Kosciuszko, and with him other Poles, the replacement of many higher officials on charges of corruption. The new emperor tried, as it were, to cross out the previous 34 years of Russian history, to declare them a complete mistake.

In Paul's domestic policy, several interrelated directions stand out - reform government controlled, changes in class politics and military reform. At first glance, the reform of public administration carried out by Paul, just like Catherine’s policy, was aimed at further centralization of power, but this task was solved differently. So, if under Catherine the importance of the Prosecutor General of the Senate especially increased, and he was in charge of many state affairs, including all financial policy, then under Pavel the prosecutor general turned into a kind of prime minister, concentrating in his hands the functions of the ministers of internal affairs, justice, and partly finance.

A further change in the functions of the Senate as a whole, for which Catherine in her later projects essentially prepared the role of the body of supreme legal supervision, is associated with the reorganization of central and local government. Back in the 80s. a number of collegiums were liquidated and only three remained - the Military one. Admiralty and Foreign Affairs. This was due to the fact that, declaring freedom of enterprise, Catherine believed it was possible to transfer the minimum necessary control over economic development into the hands of local authorities. Paul restored some colleges, considering, however, that it was necessary to transform them into ministries, replacing the principle of collegial government with one-man rule. Thus, in 1797, a completely new Ministry of Appanages was created, which was in charge of lands that belonged directly to the royal family, and in 1800 - the Ministry of Commerce. Paul even more decisively destroyed the entire system of local government created on the basis of the Institutions of 1775.

Firstly, the positions of governors were eliminated, who, in the opinion of the new emperor, enjoyed too much independence. Secondly, the orders of public charity and the deanery council were closed; The city estate administration was merged with the police, and the city council was liquidated. The judicial system created by Catherine also underwent reform: a number of judicial instances were eliminated altogether, and the chambers of the civil and criminal courts were merged into one. In this regard, the role of the Senate as a judicial body was again strengthened.

Paul also changed the administrative-territorial division of the country, the principles of managing the outskirts of the empire. Thus, 50 provinces were transformed into 41 provinces and the Region of the Don Army. Traditional governing bodies were returned to the Baltic provinces, Ukraine and some other peripheral territories. All these transformations are obviously contradictory: on the one hand, they increase the centralization of power in the hands of the tsar and eliminate elements of self-government, on the other, they reveal a return to a variety of forms of governance on the national outskirts. This contradiction stemmed primarily from the weakness of the new regime, the fear of not being able to control the entire country, as well as the desire to gain popularity in areas where there was a threat of outbreaks of the national liberation movement. And, of course, there was a desire to redo everything in a new way. It is significant that the content of Paul’s judicial reform and the liquidation of class self-government bodies meant, in essence, a step back for Russia. This reform affected not only the urban population, but also the nobility.

The attack on noble privileges, legalized by the Charter of 1785, began almost from the first days of Pavlov's reign. Already in 1797, a review was announced for all officers on the lists of the regiments, and those who did not appear were dismissed. This measure was due to the fact that under Catherine there was a custom of enrolling young noble children in the regiment, so that by the time they reached adulthood they would already have officer ranks. Also, big number officers were listed as sick, on vacation, etc. In addition, many of the highest dignitaries of the state, along with positions in the state apparatus, had the ranks of generals and were listed in various, usually guards regiments. Therefore, the measure taken by Paul seemed quite reasonable and fair, although it embittered the nobles. It was followed by a restriction of the privileges of non-serving nobles. Having requested lists of such nobles in August 1800, Paul ordered that most of them be assigned to military service. Prior to this, since October 1799, a procedure had been established according to which special permission from the Senate was required to transfer from military service to civilian service. Another decree of the emperor prohibited non-serving nobles from participating in noble elections and holding elected positions.

In 1799, provincial noble assemblies were abolished, the rights of district members were limited and, conversely, the right of governors to interfere in noble elections was strengthened. In 1797, the nobles were obliged to pay a special tax for the maintenance of the provincial administration, and in 1799 the amount charged was increased. Historians are also aware of cases of the use of corporal punishment, abolished by Catherine for the nobility, in Pavlov’s time. But in general it would be a mistake to consider Paul’s policy as anti-noble. Rather, it shows a clear desire to transform the nobility into a knightly class - disciplined, organized, serving without exception and devoted to their sovereign. It is no coincidence that Paul made an attempt to limit the influx of non-nobles into the ranks of the nobility, prohibiting their promotion to non-commissioned officers. From these positions, the emperor’s policy towards the peasantry becomes clearer.

Paul's reign, like the previous one, was marked by massive distributions to peasants as a reward for service, and in four years Paul managed to distribute almost as many peasants as his mother did in 34 (about 600 thousand). However, the difference was not only in quantity. If Catherine gave her favorites either estates left without an owner or estates in newly conquered territories, then Paul gave away first of all state peasants, thereby significantly worsening their situation. Having declared at the beginning of his reign that every subject had the right to file a complaint with him personally, Paul brutally suppressed such attempts on the part of the peasants. In December 1796, a decree was issued on assigning peasants to private owners in the Don Army Region and in Novorossiya, in March 1798 - on allowing merchant breeders to buy peasants for their enterprises with and without land. On the other hand, a number of legislative acts appeared that objectively contributed to the weakening of serfdom. So, in February 1797 The auction sale of courtyard and landless peasants was prohibited, and in October 1798, the sale of Ukrainian peasants without land was prohibited. For the first time in many years, upon Paul’s accession to the throne, serfs had to take an oath to the new emperor on an equal basis with free peasants; in December 1797, the arrears in the per capita tax were removed from the peasants and townspeople, and the recruitment set assigned by Catherine was canceled. The most famous is the so-called Manifesto on the Three-Day Corvee, published by Paul along with other important documents on the day of his coronation on April 5, 1797.

It is noteworthy that the main meaning of the manifesto is related to the ban on work on Sundays. i.e., it confirms the legal norm that already existed in the Council Code of 1649. The limitation of corvée to three days in the Manifesto is spoken of rather as a desirable, more rational distribution of the working time of farmers. The ambiguity of the manifesto led to an ambiguous interpretation by both contemporaries and historians. The peasants perceived the manifesto as a relief of their situation and tried to complain about the landowners who did not comply with it. There are cases when landowners were actually subjected to penalties and punishments for this.

However, the fact of non-fulfillment of the manifesto should not be discounted. Moreover, in some areas, for example in Ukraine, where corvee was limited to two days a week, the manifesto, on the contrary, worsened the situation of the peasants. The manifesto's ambiguity was most likely deliberate. Firstly, Paul, fearing peasant uprisings, tried to prevent them with populist measures, and secondly, he acquired another instrument of pressure on the nobles. Thirdly, he also could not openly weaken serfdom, since the dependence of the throne on the nobility was great, and he most likely had no such intentions.

Paul's policy towards the army looked more definite, to which he decided to transfer the Prussian military order, which he had so successfully used in Gatchina. The reform began with the introduction of a new uniform that completely copied the Prussian one: a long uniform, stockings and black patent leather shoes, a powdered head with a braid of a certain length; officers were given sticks with bone heads to punish offending soldiers. In December 1796, a new charter was issued, in which the main attention was paid to training soldiers in “shagistics”. Since it was based on the Prussian charter of 1760, no new achievements of Russian military thought, tested on the battlefields during Catherine’s reign, were reflected in it. Soon, several more regulations were issued for individual branches of the military, based on the idea of ​​the army as a machine, the main thing in which is the mechanical coherence of the troops and efficiency. Initiative and independence are harmful and unacceptable.

Endless parades, drills, combined with harsh measures against officers - dismissals, exiles and even arrests - caused great discontent in the army, not only in the capital, but also in the provinces. So, already in 1796-1798. In the Smolensk province there was an anti-government circle, which included officers of several regiments stationed there, officials of local institutions, as well as a number of retired military personnel.

Speaking about the internal policy of Paul I, it is worth mentioning some of his innovations related to the status of the sovereign and the royal family. On the day of his coronation, Paul published a decree on succession to the throne, establishing the transfer of the throne by inheritance strictly through the male line. The decree continued to be in force in Russia until 1917. What was also new was the creation of the already mentioned Ministry of Appanages, which meant the actual inclusion of the personal economy of the royal family in the sphere of state jurisdiction. Convinced of the divine origin of royal power, Paul did a lot to organize the external manifestations of the monarchical idea. He was a great lover of various ceremonies and rituals, which were carried out scrupulously, in compliance with the smallest details, were distinguished by their extraordinary splendor and lasted for many hours. The entire life of the court was given a strictly regulated ritual, which was further strengthened with the proclamation of Paul in 1798 as Grand Master of the Order of Malta. It should be noted, however, that all this Europeanized ritual was alien to Russia, and in Europe itself it was already perceived as archaic, and therefore caused only grins among most contemporaries, in no way contributing to the goals of glorifying the monarchy that Paul set for himself.

Petty regulation extended to the daily lives of his subjects. In particular, special decrees prescribed certain styles and sizes of clothing; it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, etc. Some prohibitions concerned appearance and behavior at the ball. It is characteristic that all these restrictions applied not only to Russian citizens, but also to foreigners. Thus, the charge d'affaires of Sardinia in Russia was expelled from St. Petersburg for wearing a round hat.

In Paul's policy there is clearly a desire to unify all spheres of life, to exclude the diversity of opinions, judgments, the possibility of choosing a lifestyle, style of behavior, clothing, etc. In this very possibility, Paul saw a revolutionary danger. The introduction of censorship and the ban on the import of books from abroad were aimed at combating the penetration of revolutionary ideas.

Foreign policy of Paul I

The main foreign policy problem of Pavlov's reign was the relationship with France. The war with her was already being prepared by Catherine II. It was planned to send a 50,000-strong corps under the command of Suvorov to Europe in 1797. Catherine's death caused the cancellation of this campaign. The French saw this as a sign of a change in Russia's attitude towards their country and tried to take advantage of the moment to exclude Russia from the number of their potential enemies. However, they were wrong. From the first months of his reign, Paul made it clear that his hatred of republican France was no weaker than Catherine’s. In 1797, Russia recruited regiments of French monarchists under the command of the Prince of Condé (a relative of the executed Louis of the 16th century), accepted the French king in exile, Louis XVIII, and assigned him an annual pension of 200,000 rubles. In 1798, all immigrants from France were prohibited from entering Russia. However, this was not enough. The countries of Europe, fearing the victorious troops of France, made all kinds of diplomatic efforts to involve Russia in the war. In 1798, a second anti-French coalition was created (Russia, Austria, Great Britain, Turkey, Sicily, Portugal and the South German states). One of the reasons for Russia’s entry into the coalition was Bonaparte’s seizure of Malta and the expulsion of the Order of Malta (Order of the Johannites) from there, after which Paul took him under his protection and promised to take revenge for the insult inflicted on the Order. The war was to be fought in three theaters: 1. in Holland together with England; 2. in Italy (the main forces under the command of Suvorov were sent here) together with Austria and 3. in the Mediterranean Sea (Ushakov’s fleet) together with England and Turkey.

Already in the fall of 1798, the Russian-Turkish squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakova entered the Mediterranean Sea to act against the French. The English squadron under the command of the famous Nelson acted independently against the garrison of Malta. Nakhimov focused his efforts on conquering the Ionian Islands, which had great importance in the struggle for dominance in the Mediterranean. The apogee of the struggle for the islands was the storming of the fortress on the island of Corfu (Kerkyra) on February 18, 1799. The islands liberated by Ushakov formed the Republic of the Seven Islands - the first Greek state in modern history. After this, Russian naval detachments landed in various parts of Southern and Central Italy and captured Naples and Rome. In January 1800, the Russian squadron was recalled by Paul to Russia due to a change in the political situation.

The fighting on land began in 1799. In Holland, a joint Russian-English landing under the command of the Duke of York, more than doubling the French forces, acted indecisively and ultimately failed. The Allies intended to deliver the main blow to the French in Italy, where large forces of the Russian and Austrian armies were concentrated. Overall command was transferred to Suvorov, but the subordination of the Austrians was rather formal. in just one month - April 1799, Suvorov defeated the French army of General Moreau and captured all of Northern Italy (except Genoa). The army of General MacDonald came to the rescue of Moro from Southern Italy. Suvorov decided not to wait until the two enemy armies united and to defeat them piece by piece. He made a rapid march towards MacDonald and defeated him in the Battle of the River. Trebbii (6-9 June 1799). Now Suvorov had a great opportunity to finish off the remnants of Moreau’s troops, but the French were saved by the indecisiveness of the Austrians, who prohibited any risky operations. Only at the end of July did the Austrian troops unite with the Russians, and already on August 4, at Novi, a battle took place with the French army, the new commander-in-chief of which was General Joubert (died in battle). After this victory, Suvorov became the master of Italy. The French were again saved from complete defeat by the inconsistency of the allies (the Austrian Gofkriegsrat forbade its troops to participate in the pursuit of the retreating ones). Relations between the Russians and the Austrians deteriorated to such an extent that their governments decided to henceforth act separately. It was decided that the Russians would move to Switzerland, and the Austrians would remain in Italy. At the end of August, Suvorov led his troops on the now famous Swiss campaign (September - October 1799).

In Switzerland, in the Zurich area, it was planned to connect with the 30,000-strong corps of the general. Rimsky-Korsakov. However, at the time when Suvorov’s troops, knocking down the French barriers, were approaching the Alps, Rimsky-Korsakov’s corps was already defeated. Abandoned by their Austrian allies, the Russians lost 18 thousand people, almost all their guns and banners. This was the heaviest defeat of the Russian army in the entire 18th century. Having defeated Rimsky-Korsakov, the French considered Suvorov doomed, because. his troops were trapped (with enemies in front and behind). To save the army, Suvorov decided to try to break through the Alps, which were considered completely impassable for large masses of troops. At the cost of incredible efforts, Suvorov withdrew his army to Bavaria on October 19. Here he received orders from Paul to return to Russia. The alliance with Austria was dissolved. For outstanding military achievements, Suvorov received the title of Generalissimo and the title of Prince of Italy. It was ordered to give him royal honors, even in the presence of the emperor himself. This was Suvorov's last and, perhaps, most brilliant campaign. Soon after returning to Russia, he died.

Disillusioned with his allies (who, moreover, were greatly weakened), after the coup of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799) in France, Paul began to lean toward rapprochement with Napoleon. In the next 1800, both sides took steps towards mutual rapprochement. In particular, France freed all Russian prisoners, and Bonaparte approached Paul with a proposal to establish friendly relations between the two sides. This appeal caused Paul's consent and on the eve of the new year 1801, 22,500 Don Cossacks were sent to conquer India. In development of this new line in relation to France, Paul I demanded that Louis XVIII leave the country and deprived him of his pension.

Coup of March 11, 1801

It is quite possible that if Paul’s transformations concerned only the sphere of administrative and police management and were carried out carefully and consistently, his fate would have turned out differently. But society, having already tasted the fruits of “enlightened absolutism,” did not want to part with that, albeit minimal, freedom that it acquired during Catherine’s reign. In addition, the impetuous, hot-tempered, fickle and unpredictable character of the emperor created a climate of uncertainty about the future, when the fate of the Russian nobleman turned out to be dependent on the random whim or change of mood of someone who was seen only as a tyrant on the throne, Moreover, if in the preparation of the previous coups of the 18th century. The decisive role belonged to the guard, now discontent has spread to virtually the entire army. Paul failed to find support in any social system.

Paul's fate was thus sealed. The conspiracy was brewing virtually from the very beginning of his reign, and many dignitaries, courtiers, senior officers, and even the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, were involved in it (or at least were aware of it). The night of March 11, 1801 became fatal for Paul, when several dozen conspirators broke into the emperor’s chambers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle and killed him. Alexander I was proclaimed Emperor of All Russia.

Historians, as already mentioned, evaluate Pavlovsk’s reign differently, equally agreeing that the continued existence of Pavlov’s regime would have delayed the socio-political development of Russia. There is also a point of view according to which Paul’s policy corresponded to the interests of the absolute monarchy, and the means he chose corresponded to the goal. The reign of Alexander I became new era in the history of Russia. For with the murder of Paul it ended National history XVIII century.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.

Detailed solution paragraph §25 on history for 8th grade students, authors N.M. Arsentiev, A.A. Danilov, I.V. Kurukin. 2016

Questions and tasks for working with the text of a paragraph

1. List the main goals of Paul I’s foreign policy.

Fight against revolutionary France;

Confrontation with England.

2. What was the reason for the military clashes between Russia and France? Which of Russia's allies provided it with real military assistance at that time?

Napoleon captured Malta, which was under the patronage of Paul 1. None of the allies provided real assistance to Russia.

3. How could the nobles and the church evaluate Paul I’s taking under the protection of the Order of Malta?

This act of Paul 1 could be assessed as patronage of the Catholic Church.

4. What was the goal of the Russian troops in the Swiss campaign?

In connection with the planned landing of the 30,000-strong Anglo-Russian landing corps in Holland, the Austrian command decided to send all Austrian troops located in Switzerland (58 thousand people under the command of Archduke Charles) to join the Anglo-Russian corps in Holland. In return for the Austrian troops that left Switzerland, it was planned to transfer Russian troops there from Italy (about 21 thousand) and connect them with the 24 thousand Russian corps located in Switzerland under the command of Alexander Rimsky-Korsakov.

5. Do you agree with the opinion that the union of Russia and France was inevitable? Prove your position.

England refused to liberate Malta, captured from the French, Napoleon curtailed his revolutionary conquests and sought to restore the monarchy.

6. What were the economic and political goals of the Indian campaign for Russia?

Russia withdrew from the Second Anti-French Coalition due to contradictions with its allies. The failure of a joint British invasion of the Netherlands marked the beginning of a rift, and the British occupation of Malta angered Paul I, who was proud of the title of Grand Master of the Order of Malta. He hastily broke off diplomatic relations with London and entered into an alliance with Napoleon, who back in 1797 announced his intention to strike British India. The Russian Empire motivated its expansion to the south with the desire to stop the raids of local peoples on its possessions and to gain access to Central Asian goods, especially cotton.

7. Is there a relationship between the foreign policy of Paul I and the conspiracy against him?

The English government, trying to avoid war with Russia, subsidized the conspiracy against Paul through the envoy in St. Petersburg, Lord Whitworth.

Working with the map

1. Show on the map the routes of Russian troops in the Italian and Swiss campaigns. Find the most difficult places.

Ursern Hole, St. Gotthard Pass

Suvorov's Swiss campaign was one of the largest military events of its time in the mountain theater of operations in terms of its scope and duration of action far from supply bases.

5 thousand kilometers

We think, compare, reflect

1. Why did the Western European Catholic knightly Order of Malta choose the Orthodox Russian Tsar Paul 1 as its Grand Master?

The reason for Paul 1's acceptance of the title of Grand Master (which was also a development of his mother's policy) was his deepest understanding of the high Service of the idea of ​​​​Orthodox Autocracy. Having headed the oldest knightly order in Europe, which united the flower of the entire European aristocracy, Paul 1 sought to show the world the ministry of the emperor, recognized since ancient times by Christianity, as the Ecumenical Basileus, and as the Keeper of the secret of lawlessness, as well as the “External Bishop of the Church,” uniting peoples to oppose apostasy. Ambrose, Archbishop of Kazan, in his speech about Emperor Paul said: “Having accepted the title of Grand Master of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, you have revealed in your royal person the refuge and intercession common to all the faithful children of the Church.” Patronage of the Order was also due to strategic interests: having a military base on the island of Malta, Russia received access to the Mediterranean Sea.

The Sovereign wanted to modify the Order of Malta, into a kind of political party, the goals of which would be to implement the noble ideals of Christianity and serve one’s neighbor according to the behests of the Savior. Several decades later, after his death, these ideas were partially realized in the creation of the International Red Cross. With such unusual measures, Emperor Paul 1 sought to strengthen, as he believed, Orthodox Church and overcome the gap between the Church and society that arose after Peter’s Spiritual Regulations. The secularization of society was also opposed by the unity of the spiritual and state principles in the Order, where the nobles took knightly vows of service to the Church and the Sovereign.

2. Using documents, write a note for an online publication about a conspiracy against Paul 1.

About three hundred people participated in the preparation of the conspiracy. Its core consisted of Vice-Chancellor Count N.P. Panin, Governor-General of St. Petersburg P.A. Palen, as well as brothers Platon and Nikolai Zubov. Many in the country were dissatisfied with the order established by Paul. The main reasons that caused the conspiracy can be considered the following: dissatisfaction of the nobility with the infringement of noble liberties and privileges; repressions against the dissatisfied, exile to Siberia; dislike of the court nobility and guards officers, lack of loyal people on whom you can rely; despotism, excessive regulation, strict discipline not only in the army, but also in everyday life; inconsistent foreign policy, severance of relations with England. Assassination of Paul I The Emperor received news of a conspiracy being prepared against him. On March 8, he summoned the Governor-General of St. Petersburg, Palen, who reassured the sovereign, saying that he was under reliable protection. After this, the conspirators decided not to hesitate. At midnight on March 11, they managed to penetrate (not without betrayal) into Mikhailovsky Castle and get to the emperor's bedroom. The conspirators wanted to force Paul to renounce the throne, but he did not agree and was killed as a result of the ensuing fight. One of the participants in the coup, Nikolai Zubov, struck him in the temple with a heavy snuff box. The emperor fell and was strangled by the scarf of one of the attackers. There is an opinion that Great Britain, relations with which by this time had deteriorated, could have been involved in the conspiracy. Another version is that the coup took place with the approval of his son Alexander, who made it a condition that his father’s life be spared. But fate decreed otherwise. The new Emperor Alexander I announced that his father had died of apoplexy. A new era has begun.

3. Some historians talk about Paul 1’s connections with the Freemasons. Using additional materials, write a conclusion in which you evaluate the reliability of this version. Make a list of arguments to support your position.

Placed by his mother at the complete disposal of the chief educator, Count Nikita Panin, Pavel found himself among prominent Russian masons from early childhood. The people with whom Paul most often met in the days of his childhood, in the days of his youth and later, whom he trusted, with whom he was friends, who expressed their sympathy for him, were all high-ranking Masons. It was Nikita Panin who recruited Pavel into membership in the Masonic fraternity. Nikita Panin's brother Peter Panin. Relatives of the counts Panins, princes A. B. Kurakin and N. V. Repnin. Prince Kurakin was at one time the Russian ambassador to France. In Paris, he was recruited into the ranks of the Martinist Order by Saint Martin himself. Returning to Russia, Kurakin recruited Novikov into the order. After I.P. Elagin, Kurakin became the head of Russian Freemasons. Prince N.V. Repnin, according to contemporaries, was devoted to the ideas of Freemasonry “to the point of stupidity.” Nikita Panin was helped in raising Pavel by the freemason T. I. Osterwald.

Fleet captain Sergei Ivanovich Pleshcheev, with whom Pavel became friends and whom he loved very much, was also a Freemason who joined the Masonic lodge during his stay in Italy. Prince Repnin brought Pavel together with Pleshcheev, one must think, not without secret intent. Russian Freemasons decided to make Pavel a Freemason and tried in every possible way to ensure that he became a member of the order. Beginning in 1769, a lively correspondence arose between Pavel and Panin regarding the essay “Journey to the Land of Ophir” written by the freemason Prince Shcherbatov. “Journey to the Land of Ophir” is the first plan drawn up in Russia for organizing a socialist, totalitarian state. In the life of the Ophirians, everything is under the careful, petty tutelage of the state authorities, in the person of the Sankrei - police officers. “Sankrei” care about “peace”, “safety”, “health”, etc.

It is interesting that in “Journey to the Country of Ophir we find a plan for the organization of military settlements created later by Alexander I. The army in Ophiria consists of soldiers who live in special villages. In each village there lives a company of soldiers. “Journey to the Country of Ophir” by Prince Shcherbatov is predecessor of the “Russian Truth” of the Decembrist Pestel. The structure of the totalitarian state, which is outlined in these writings, is surprisingly reminiscent of the socialist state created in our days by the Bolsheviks. The idea of ​​​​military settlements created later by Alexander I was undoubtedly inspired by the Masonic work of Prince Alexander I. not be familiar with “Journey to the Land of Ophir” and have probably read it.

To win Paul over to their side, the Masons let him know that they want to see him on the throne, and not Catherine usurping his rights. In Vernadsky’s study “Russian Freemasonry during the reign of Catherine II,” we read the following: “The negative attitude of a significant part of the Freemasons towards Catherine and sympathy for Pavel Petrovich became quite clear at the end of the 1770s.

Paul's connections with the Freemasons, the Freemasons' affection for Paul, and the connections of Russian Freemasons with Swedish Freemasons, of course, became known to Catherine and caused her great concern. Probably wanting to break Paul's connections with the Freemasons, Catherine II insists that Paul undertake a trip to Europe. In the fall of 1781, Pavel and his wife, under the name of Count Severny, left for Europe. Abroad, Paul’s connections with the Freemasons continue. Among his companions are his close friends S.I. Pleshcheev and A.V. Kurakin, the future head of Russian Freemasons.

In his wife's family, Pavel finds himself in an atmosphere of passion for the ideas of the Martinists. The mother of Paul's wife met with Saint Martin, the head of the Martinist order, every word of Saint Martin was the highest commandment for her. In the spring of 1782, Paul participated in a meeting of members of the Masonic lodge in Vienna.

It is known that the head of the Russian Rosicrucians, Schwartz, wrote to a member of the Rosicrucian Order, Prince Karl of Hesse-Kassel, about his thoughts and

Paul's possible role in the order. “The original letter of the Duke of Hesse-Kassel written to Schwartz in 1782 proves their fraternal correspondence - from it one can see that Prince Kurakin was used as an instrument to bring the Grand Duke into brotherhood.”

When Pavel returned from Europe, his friend, the famous architect Bazhenov, a member of the Rosicrucian Order, came to him from Moscow, who probably tried to persuade Pavel to join Freemasonry.

Many years of cultivation finally bore fruit and in 1784 Pavel joined one of the Masonic lodges subordinate to I. Elagin. Paul was solemnly accepted as a member of the brotherhood of free masons by Senator I. Elagin. Pavel's chief teacher, Count. N.I.

Panin, to whom the Masons praised him for the fact that he: “Brought the royal heart into the temple of friendship.”

How did Paul himself feel about the Freemasons? By the nobility of his character. Pavel, surrounded by Freemasons since childhood, had no idea about the true secrets of the goals of world Freemasonry; he believed that Freemasons were virtuous people who wished good to people. But then Pavel apparently developed some suspicions. It is known that when Bazhenov came to him again one day, he asked him if the Freemasons had any secret goals. Bazhenov managed to convince Pavel that the Freemasons do not have any bad intentions, that their goal is high and noble - the brotherhood of all people living on earth. “God is with you,” Paul said then, “just live peacefully.” But when the Great French Revolution broke out and Paul became aware of the participation of the Freemasons in it, he sharply changed his attitude towards the Freemasons.

4. Based on additional materials, write an essay about one of the episodes related to the military activities of A.V. Suvorov or F.F. Ushakov in 1799.

In 1798, Russia joined the 2nd anti-French coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Turkey, the Kingdom of Naples). A united Russian-Austrian army was created to march into northern Italy, captured by the troops of the French Directory. Initially, it was planned to put Archduke Joseph at the head of the army. But at the insistence of England, Austria asked Paul I to appoint Suvorov as commander. The commander, summoned from exile, arrived in Vienna on March 14 (25), 1799, where Emperor Franz I awarded Suvorov the rank of Austrian field marshal. On April 4 (15), the commander arrived with the Russian troops in Verona, and the next day he moved with the troops to Valeggio. Already on April 8 (19), the allied Russian-Austrian troops of about 80 thousand people under the command of Suvorov began moving from Valeggio to the Adda River. Before the campaign, he made an appeal to the Italian people. The first clash between Suvorov's troops and the French on the Italian territory they captured was the capture of the fortress city of Brescia on April 10 (21) (Major General Prince Bagration distinguished himself in this battle). The capture of Brescia made it possible to begin a blockade of the enemy fortresses of Mantua and Pesquera (for which 20 thousand people were allocated) and to begin the movement of the main part of the army towards Milan, where parts of the French army retreated to protect it, which entrenched themselves on the opposite bank of the Adda River. On April 15 (26) the city of Lecco was taken, on April 16 (27) the main part of the battle on the Adda River began: Russian troops crossed the river and defeated the French army under the leadership of the famous commander, General Jean Victor Moreau. The French lost about 3 thousand killed and about 5 thousand captured. The final stage of the battle on the Adda River was the Battle of Verderio, which resulted in the surrender of the French division of General Serrurier. As a result of the battle, the French army retreated, and on April 17 (28) the allied forces entered Milan. On April 20 (May 1) they set out for the Po River. In this campaign, the fortresses of Peschiera, Tortona, and Pizigetone were taken, in each of which Suvorov left a garrison of Austrians, so his army was gradually reduced. At the beginning of May, Suvorov began moving towards Turin. On May 5 (16), the French detachment of General Moreau near Marengo attacked the Austrian division, but with the help of Bagration’s detachment it was driven back. French troops were forced to retreat, leaving the fortresses of Casale and Valenza without a fight and opening the road to Turin, which was taken without a fight (thanks to the support of local residents and Piedmontese national guard) May 15 (26). As a result, almost all of northern Italy was cleared of French troops. Meanwhile, in mid-May, General MacDonald's army arrived in Florence and moved towards Genoa to join forces with Moreau. On June 6 (17), a battle began on the Trebbia River between the Russian-Austrian troops of Suvorov and the French army of Macdonald. It lasted three days and ended in the defeat of the French, who lost half of their army killed and captured. In July 1799, the fortresses of Alessandria and Mantua fell. After the fall of the last charter of the Sardinian king Charles Emmanuel, dated June 28 (July 9), 1799, the field marshal and commander-in-chief of the allied Austro-Russian army, Count Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky, was elevated, by right of primogeniture, to the dignity of a prince, a royal relative (“cousin king") and grandee of the kingdom of Sardinia and was made grand marshal of Piedmont. By the highest rescript of Paul I of August 2 (13), 1799, he was allowed to accept the indicated titles and use them in Russia. On August 3 (14), the French occupied Novi. The Allied army also approached Novi, and on August 4 (15) the Battle of Novi began. During the 18-hour battle, the French army was completely defeated, losing 7 thousand people killed (including its commander Joubert), 4.5 thousand prisoners, 5 thousand wounded and 4 thousand deserters. The Battle of Novi was the last major battle of the Italian Campaign. After him, Emperor Paul I ordered that Suvorov be given the same honors that had previously been given only to the emperor. By a personal Highest decree of August 8 (19), 1799, Field Marshal General Count Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov-Rymniksky was elevated, with his descendants, to the princely dignity of the Russian Empire with the title of Prince of Italy and ordered to be called henceforth Prince of Italy, Count Suvorov-Rymniksky.

5. There is an opinion that Catherine 2 at one time tried to prevent Paul from ascending the throne, because she knew well the views and character of her son and feared for his life (as it turned out, not in vain). Explain what ideas and character traits of Paul 1 contributed to his tragic death.

In 1776, Paul I married for the second time. The wife of the heir to the Russian throne was Sophia-Dorothe, who at baptism took the name Maria Feodorovna. Maria Feodorovna was related to the Prussian king. Apparently under the influence of his wife, he began to like many German customs. Paul I was a man of changeable character, and often made contradictory decisions. People quickly fell out of favor with him, and just as quickly became his favorites.

6. Why did a contemporary of the death of Paul 1 express the opinion that of the 36 million inhabitants of Russia, 33 million “had reason to bless the emperor”? Who were these 33 million? Give reasons for your answer.

The internal policy of Paul I caused discontent among the nobles, because... The emperor tried to alleviate the situation of the peasantry, who made up the majority of the empire's population.

We repeat and draw conclusions

3. List the most important, in your opinion, features of the reign of Paul 1.

The emperor's actions towards England are considered rash. The domestic and domestic and foreign policies of Paul 1 are assessed negatively. Summary it can be summed up in one word – short-sightedness. This is due to the war that almost broke out with England due to the interests of the Knights of Malta. Many note the unjustified risk of Asian trips.

4. What were the reasons for the conspiracy against Paul 1?

On the night of Monday 11 (23) March 1801 to 12 (24) March 1801, as a result of a conspiracy involving guards officers in the building of the Mikhailovsky Castle, Russian Emperor Paul I was killed. The reasons for the conspiracy were the dissatisfaction of the participants with the unpredictable policies pursued by Paul I (tough, the methods of management of Paul I reaching the point of cruelty, the atmosphere of fear and uncertainty he created, the dissatisfaction of the highest noble circles, deprived of their former freedom and privileges, the capital's guard officers and the instability of the political course), that is, the desire to replace the tsar with a more “compliant” one. Financing by Great Britain, dissatisfied with the severance of relations with Russia, and its alliance with Napoleon, is also suspected. The awareness of Tsarevich Alexander Pavlovich about the impending murder of his father is in question. Official version V Russian Empire For more than a hundred years, there was death from illness due to natural causes: “from apoplexy” (stroke).

Man's worst enemies would not wish him the troubles that his own thoughts can bring him.

Eastern wisdom

The less than five years of the reign of Emperor Paul 1, from 1796 to 1801, were remembered for their intense foreign policy. During this period, revolutionary France strengthened and began a campaign of conquest in Europe. It was these events that served as the main point for Paul 1 in defining Russia’s tasks in foreign policy. However, the alliance with European powers against France brought the country many disappointments, which led to a sharp change in Russia's foreign policy course. The article is devoted to a description of the main stages and directions of the foreign policy of the Russian Emperor Paul 1.

Basic principles of foreign policy at the beginning of the reign

Having begun to rule in 1796, Paul 1 declared that Russia would wage only defensive wars. This was due to the fact that in the 18th century the country spent most of its resources on regular external conflicts. It was by adhering to this line that the emperor declared neutrality regarding the French Revolution. A year before the start of his reign, Russia became part of the first anti-French coalition. In 1796, Russia left the coalition. However, further successes of France forced England, Austria and Prussia to strengthen the work of their diplomatic services in order to once again involve Russia in a new alliance against France. As a result, by the end of 1797 the parties were able to agree on the creation of a second anti-French coalition.

Main goals

Foreign policy in 1797-1800

According to joint agreements between England, Austria, the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the troops of Paul 1 were to take part in three large military campaigns:

1. Netherlands. It was necessary to send 45 thousand soldiers to this country to restore its independence. This military campaign was carried out entirely in the interests of England. The campaign itself took place in 1798, but ended in complete failure of the Anglo-Russian troops. In fact, about 7 thousand Russian soldiers died for the interests of England.
2. Italy and Switzerland. The trek through the Alps, which eventually became world famous, was led by Suvorov. As a result, Northern Italy was liberated from the French, but Rimsky-Korsakov’s army was defeated near Zurich. Despite the success in this military campaign, it was clear that Austria benefited from this campaign, but at the hands of Russia.
3. Maritime company in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1798, Paul 1 signed an agreement with the Turks that the Russian fleet could freely pass through the straits into the Mediterranean Sea. This was aimed at implementing a plan to recapture the Ionian Islands and southern Italy from the French. In 1798-1800, the sea voyage was led by Admiral F. Ushakov. The main victory was the capture of the fortress of Corfu on the Ionian Islands. In addition, the Russian fleet fought in the area of ​​Naples and Palermo in Italy.

An interesting fact is that after Paul 1 announced plans to liberate Malta from the French, the Order of Malta named the Russian emperor as its protector. In December 1798, Paul 1 was elected master of this order. The Emperor was fascinated by the stories of knightly orders, so he established the Order of St. John in Russia, and added the Maltese cross to the coat of arms of Russia. In addition, some sacred Christian relics, for example the Philermo Icon of the Mother of God, were transported to St. Petersburg.

As we can see, most of the military campaign of 1798-1800 was primarily in the interests of Russia’s allies: England, Austria and Turkey. This was the reason for the break with the second anti-French coalition in 1800.

Foreign policy in 1800-1801

After a break with previous allies, Paul 1 began a rapprochement with France. This led to serious aggravation of relations with England and other countries of the anti-French coalition. As a result, Paul 1 took a number of actions aimed primarily against England:

1. In 1800, a law was signed banning the import of English goods into Russia. These actions were aimed at an economic blockade of England.
2. In 1801, the Don Cossack corps received orders to prepare for the start of a campaign against British India. The campaign never began, because in March 1801 a coup took place in Russia and Alexander 1 came to power.

As we can see, in 1800, fundamental changes occurred in the foreign policy of Paul 1: the emperor moved from an alliance with the anti-French coalition to cooperation with Napoleonic France. However, the economic blockade of England could also undermine the interests of Russia, and this became one of the reasons for the coup d'etat of 1801.

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The domestic and foreign policy of Paul I (1796-1801), who ascended the throne after the death of Catherine II (1796), was distinguished by inconsistency and unpredictability.

During Catherine’s life, Pavel was in a certain opposition towards her, hating his mother. An almost ascetic military atmosphere reigned in the Gatchina courtyard; it rather resembled a military camp.

Pavel, a staunch supporter of Prussia and its military order, built his life according to the Prussian military model. Having ascended the throne, he tried to turn all of Russia into a kind of Gatchina camp. He hated the French Revolution and fought in Russia against any advanced social thought by all means available to him. The import of foreign books into Russia was prohibited. Paul introduced the Prussian military system into the army, dressed the army and even the bureaucrats in Prussian clothes. Barracks order was established in the capital. Severe punishments were introduced for bribes and theft. Paul ordered the release of all political prisoners arrested under Catherine II.

Occupied an important place in the legislation of Paul I new system succession to the throne. In April 1797, with the “Act on the Order of Succession to the Throne” and the “Institution on the Imperial Family,” he restored the principle of succession to the throne only through the male line. Women could receive this right only in cases of suppression of all male lines of the dynasty.

Paul I's policy took an unexpected turn in relation to the noble class. His “golden age” and Catherine’s liberties were over. The nobility was placed under strict control of the administration, provincial noble meetings were abolished, and it was allowed to subject nobles to corporal punishment for criminal offenses. He demanded the return of nobles from long-term leave to the regiments, and those who did not obey this order were dismissed from the army. In addition, the nobles were subject to a tax of almost two million. But Paul did not encroach on the basis of the foundations - noble land ownership and serfdom. During the four years of his reign, he distributed over 500 thousand state peasants to the nobles (Catherine II for 34 years - 850 thousand).

The reign of Paul I began in an atmosphere of peasant unrest in the country, which covered 32 provinces. They were suppressed by military force. The foreign policy of Paul I was also marked by contradictions. An ardent enemy of France, in 1798 he entered the war against it. In the spring of 1799, the Russian army under the command of Suvorov appears in Northern Italy. In April, the victory at the Adda River opened the way for him to Milan and Turin and forced the French to withdraw their troops. According to the Russian command, the task in Italy was completed and military operations should have been transferred to the Rhine and French territory. However, Austria, fearing the anti-Austrian liberation movement of the Italians, insists on the transfer of Russian troops to Switzerland. There Suvorov was supposed to continue the war with the French along with Austrian troops. He makes a battle crossing through the Alps to Switzerland, unparalleled in heroism, but by that time the Austrians were defeated. Suvorov, breaking through the French barriers, winning victory after victory, leads his army out of the French encirclement. Simultaneously with the activities of Suvorov, the Russian fleet under the command of Ushakov leads victoriously fighting at sea: he stormed the most powerful fortress on the island of Corfu and liberated Naples with battles. Then the Russian sailors entered Rome.

But at the end of 1799, Russia stopped the war. The anti-French coalition (Russia, Austria, Türkiye, England and the Kingdom of Naples) collapsed. Napoleon agreed to a truce with Paul I. Their negotiations ended with the development of a plan of joint action against England. In January 1801, Paul, with a sudden order, sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks on a campaign against English possessions in India. Paul prepared a decree banning trade with England, which threatened huge losses for the country. The emperor's anti-English policy served as the final impetus for the court aristocracy to organize a conspiracy. The British ambassador to Russia was also involved in the coup d'état of March 11, 1801, which resulted in the assassination of Paul I. But main reason What pushed the conspirators to the coup was the acute dissatisfaction of the capital's nobility with Paul. Paul had no social support and was overthrown.