The period of imperial Russian and British influence on Persia (XIX - early XX centuries). Ottoman Empire in the 19th century

It's no secret that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Persia was an unusual mixture of old and new traditions that were embodied in everyday life. Despite the introduction of the latest Western developments, harems, slaves and strange traditions could still be seen here. We invite you to look at photographs of that time, which are completely different from anything you could imagine.

The last Shahs of the Qajar dynasty struggled to modernize the country. Engineers from Russia built the telegraph, the French trained the army, airplanes appeared in Tehran - at that moment the last word in technology. The pilots, of course, were daredevils, but the girl in a burqa and dirty shoes, proprietiously leaning on the plane in this photo, looks no less dashing.

Shah Nasser ad-Din, who ruled Persia in the second half of the 19th century, was fond of photography from his youth. He set up his own photo studio in the palace and appointed Anton Sevryugin from Russia, who had a photo studio in Tehran, as the first court photographer. Sevryugin filmed the Shah and the courtiers, but the path to the women’s half of the palace was closed. Nasser ad-Din personally photographed his harem.

In Persia of those years, the telegraph, airplanes and cameras coexisted with the medieval order. Numerous wives and concubines of the nobility were served by eunuchs and slaves from Africa and the Caucasus. Slavery was banned only in 1929, after the overthrow of the Qajar dynasty.

The harem of Mozafereddin Shah, the son and successor of Nasser ad-Din, has nothing in common with the fantasies of Europeans who have read oriental fairy tales. This is not "A Thousand and One Nights" - no half-naked girls and belly dancing. It looks more like a peaceful family portrait: women look decorously into the lens, mischievous children crawl under the table.

The daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din, the chubby beauty Akhtar ad-Daula, poses with her maids. In the second half of the 19th century, Persian ideas about beauty - both female and male - differed markedly from European ones. Noble girls did not strive to lose weight and flaunted thick eyebrows, and sometimes light facial hair.

A group of women with a goat in the andaruni (inner chambers) of the Shah's palace. The veils on their heads were surprisingly combined with miniskirts that would have caused a scandal in any European capital of the time.

The beloved concubine often appears in photographs taken by Nasser ad-Din, and each time in a new outfit - either in a Persian skirt, or in a European dress, or in a Japanese kimono. The girl was a Circassian beauty and, most likely, a slave.

The Shah's granddaughter Ismat al-Muluk and her relatives make faces in front of the camera. You won’t see anything like this on Instagram, but in the 19th century they didn’t joke with photos. For the photo to be successful, people had to sit motionless in front of the camera for several minutes with a blank face. But the law is not written for princesses, especially in cases where their own grandfather is hiding under the cover of the cell.

Another photograph of Ismat is also not entirely serious. She stands next to her sister Fakhr al-Taj, and their father, the Shah's son-in-law, is lying under a chair.

Next to the Shah’s granddaughter Fakhr al-Taj, her mother, the daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din Ismat ad-Daula, took a nap on the bench.

Another granddaughter of the Shah is Ismat al-Muluk with a goat in her arms next to her husband.

Musicians and dances in the city of Selmas.

Despite traditional clothing and head coverings, the girls at the girls' school study the most advanced science of the time, and the classroom is equipped with microscopes - not a cheap pleasure.

October 19th, 2013

Persia under Nasr-ed-Din Shah (2)

Misl-Rustem. Persia under Nasr-Edin Shah from 1882 to 1888 - St. Petersburg, 1897. (Misl-Rustem - pseudonym Menyaeva, one of the instructors of the Persian Cossack Brigade). Essay I.

ESSAY II
Capital of Persia Tehran
Position of the city. — Description of parts of the city. — Water supply. - People. — Activities of residents. - We did. - Beggars. - Street types. - Bazaars.

Tehran. Meydan-i Mashk (training ground). Ice cream seller.
Here and below are photos of A. Sevryugin.

The capital of the “Center of the World”, Padishah, Shahinshah (i.e. the king of kings), “the shadow of Mohammed on earth”, Nasr-Edin, “the famous descendant of Mohammed Shah, Fat-Ali Shah” and so on. and so on. (in one word, the entire title of the Shah cannot be recounted) - the city of Tehran lies on a sandy and rocky plain and from a distance, from the mountains, it represents a fairly regular circle, bordered by festoons. These festoons are fortress earthen ramparts, shaped like lunettes, along which a fairly deep ditch has been dug with 14 bridges thrown across it, leading to the 14 gates of the rampart. They say that the Persians can dam the ditch with water at will; the shaft itself is not thick and has embrasures on the sides of the gate, but in any case cannot serve as reliable security in wartime. In some places, the ditch and rampart are now partially crumbling, and they are not being repaired, being somewhat supported only on the side from which the Shah usually leaves for his summer palaces, that is, they are being repaired only for show to the Shah. From a distance, behind the rampart, the city is almost invisible, since all Persian houses have flat earthen roofs; Only the protruding mosques and the Shah's palace protrude.

2. Darvaze-yi Daulat Gate

Approaching one of the bridges leading across the moat into the city, you are amazed by the picturesque architecture of the city gates, with turrets and columns at the top, with entire paintings laid out with Persian multi-colored tiles, and which always has a customs guard.

3. Darvaze-yi Daulat, view from the city side

The circumference of Tehran, together with the ditch, reaches 30 miles; the city is divided into three parts: the first - European, lying closer to the north; then the Asian part, lying in the center of the city, and, finally, the wastelands, or suburban part, lying inside the rampart, to the south. I will try to describe each part separately in order to give a clearer idea of ​​the city.

In the European quarter, the streets are laid out very well: they are wide and mostly have ditches on the sides with running water, lined with mulberry (mulberry) trees, which provide coolness on hot days, and even food for the poor when the berries (mulberries) ripen on them. The streets are kept very clean, watered in the evenings and swept during the day by special people hired from the police, dressed in uniforms. The only pity is that even in the European quarter there are no sidewalks made of slabs, but mostly paved with large cobblestones; The streets themselves are almost all highways. These streets make a strange impression on a visitor: although they are very clean, they seem inhospitable. This happens because very few houses have windows facing the street. The Persians build all their houses with windows facing the courtyard, so that from the outside you see only walls with doors that have brackets hung from outside, with which they knock when they want to enter. These staples replace their bell. The Persians do not build windows onto the street in order to protect their enderun pearls, i.e. women (harem), from prying eyes. The walls of the houses facing the street are mostly whitened or remain gray from the clay that smears them.

4. Tehran at the beginning of the 20th century. (Sign: “Rzayev Brothers / Shemakha People”)

All diplomatic missions are located in the European quarter, with the exception of the Russian Imperial Mission, which for some reason was built near the Asian bazaars, in the dirty part of the city; There are also many rich palaces of various khans and the palace of the police chief, built by him using some dubious financial sources. In the same quarter in my time there were two hotels for Europeans: one by the Frenchman Prevost, kept quite clean, although without any comfort, and the other “Grand-Hotel”, kept by an Armenian, very dirty, with a warped billiard. Next is the police department with smelly basements, a madersa (school) for military men and doctors. A cartridge factory with antediluvian machines brought from France by bandmaster Lemaire on the orders of the Shah. (Isn’t it strange that a bandmaster buys cars for a cartridge factory? But this does not seem strange to the Persians). A telegraph station of an American company, which gives its branch to the Russians for several hours for negotiations, for which purpose a stupid telegraph operator is also kept there. The gas plant, which costs a lot and, which is probably why it often doesn’t work, has not enough gas even for two and a half streets: sometimes the lamps are lit during the day when the Shah is passing by, but as soon as it gets dark they are in a hurry to put them out, and the streets remain in darkness . There are even two Apple lanterns on the square, but due to a malfunction they never shine.

5. Tehran. Gas street. (The horse-drawn tram and the Tehran-Shah Abdul Azim railway belonged to Lazar Polyakov ,
who bought the bankrupt company from the Belgians)

In the same part there are: the Meydan-Mashk parade ground (for training) and Top-Maidan (artillery), in the middle of which there is a large pool that emits a stench; although there is a lot of water in it, the Persians often wash themselves there and rinse their linen, thereby dirtying it. This square has four gates to the streets, on one of which, opposite the palace street, local musicians play the evening dawn every day.

6. Nakkara-khane. Musicians play dawn

There are also two public baths, very dirty and smelly, but I will talk about them separately later. The streets in the European quarter are named Evropeyskaya, Aliazarovskaya, etc., so thanks to this you can quickly find your way around. On many streets of this quarter you will come across stone police guardhouses, where you will often see a colorfully dressed policeman sitting dozing, who will jump up when he sees you, grab a naked saber standing against the wall and poke it in the air, that is, salute, and more often, when he sees you, he will not get up and will continue to doze or smoke an inseparable hookah.

7. Darvaze-yi Meydan-i Tuphane - gate of Cannon Square

On the border, so to speak, of the European quarter with the Asian quarter stands the Shah's palace; he occupies a huge space with his enderun and is surrounded on all sides by a high wall. I will talk further about the palaces separately, but for now I’ll move on to the Asian quarter, which lies behind the palace.

8. Jewish Quarter of Tehran

This part of the city is built in the old Asian style and there is no street layout at all; the streets, or rather, for the most part, the alleys, are all crooked, dirty, most of them so narrow that two horsemen can barely pass each other. In this part, bazaars are concentrated and Persians, Jews and Hebrians live - there are no Europeans; Even the richest Persians huddle here and, despite the fact that the inside of their houses is clean, in front of the exits on the street there is dirt, and there is often carrion lying around. The bazaars are formed by vaulted or mat-covered buildings (a type of matting), which are wide galleries with small open benches in front. Among the bazaars there are mosques. Uncovered pits leading to underground water pipes are installed right on the streets, so you can easily get there; but don’t worry, it’s not deep there and they’ll pull you out now - it’s an ordinary thing; once even the police chief himself, Count M., fell into such a hole and escaped only by dislocating his foot: on this occasion the Persians calmly say: “Eib-nadere” (nothing). The orderlies in these streets, apparently, are dogs, who roam them en masse and do not bother anyone during the day, but in the evenings or at night, as soon as you step on a dog or touch one of them, entire packs will begin to chase you.

9. Meydan-i Mashk (training ground)

Right there, surrounded by this dirt, are the customs and postal departments. In one of the bazaars there is Sabz-Maidan Square (Green Square), around which there are stalls with fodder. In the same square there is a permanent scaffold, with a long pole on which the heads of those executed are hung. In general, there is little interesting to be found in this quarter - dirt and stench, stench and dirt.

The third part of the city is located behind the Asian quarter. There, among the fields, there are brick factories with a lot of deep pits where they take clay; There are also caravanserais (inns) for caravans and vegetable gardens. This part of the city is adorned only by a railway station, arranged in a European style, the path from which, for only 11 miles, goes to the holy place, revered by the Persians, the monastery called Shah Abdul-Azim, i.e., the Refuge of Shah Abdul.

10. Over time, other railways appeared. directions: Khorasan Gate of Tehran. End of the 19th century

Having described in particular each part in appearance, I will try to describe in general the street life of the capital, water supply, etc. - in a word, everything that may be of some interest.

There are no lakes or rivers near the city, and it is supplied with water using canals from springs located in the mountains 70-80 miles from the city. These canals partly run on the surface of the earth, but mostly underground; to refresh the water and purify it, at a distance of every 20-30 steps, holes are made above the underground channels; There are up to 70 such canals from the mountains to the city, two of them are called Shah canals, and they have better water. Similar canals run throughout the city and water is taken from them through existing holes; "saki" (water carriers) carry water to houses in leather bags, and charge 1½-2 rubles a month for this.

11. Water carrier

The Persians generally know how to draw channels very well, but they look after them poorly: without ceremony, five steps from the place where people take water for drinking, they often wash all their parts of the body, which is required before prayer. I myself saw how in the wonderful palace pool of the Shah, although very neglected, the guard sarbaz (soldiers) performed the usual ablution and immediately drank. The Persians love water, and in a rare courtyard there is no stone pool (entirely filled with stinking water) for home use, watering the yard, washing dishes and laundry, etc. The Persians are generally unclean in handling water, which is why even in the magnificent pools of the Shah you will constantly see there is mud and mud at the bottom.

It is impossible to determine exactly how many people live in Tehran; ask any Persian, and he will answer your question: “Allah will pass,” that is, God knows; many even say that it is a sin to count people. There has never been a population census, and it would hardly be possible to carry one out, since many fanatics will not show the correct number of “pearls” (wives and concubines) in their enderuns. But approximately the city has a population of up to 100 tons, which breaks down as follows: 70% Shiite Muslims-Persians, 18% Sunni Muslims, Turks and Jews, 10% Christians and 2% idolatrous Hebras, Afghans and others. Most of these people are engaged in trade. Almost everyone trades in Persia, from the “sartip” (general) to the “sarbaz” (soldier), and this does not seem strange there. On the street you will often see a soldier in a uniform, with shoulder straps, short pants and not wearing a uniform hat, squatting against the wall in front of a dirty rag on which copper money is lying - this is a street exchanger of silver for copper and vice versa; or you will see the same soldier trading on a “donkey” (donkey) boiled beets(favorite food of the poor). Thanks to the heat, there are few people visible on the streets during the day, but if you go to indoor markets or go outside during sunset, around 5 o’clock in the afternoon, you will see a lot of people scurrying around, as if in an anthill.

12. Beet merchant

You can see a lot of interesting things in the clothes and customs of the country. I often went out only to admire all the originalities of Eastern life. What tourists and newspaper correspondents from Eastern countries usually talk about, namely, that on the streets you see luxury costumes everywhere, I have not seen, although I lived in the East (in Persia and Turkey) for 8 years; I’ll tell you straight, luxury costumes are nowhere to be found on the streets of Persia; rather, poverty and dirt are striking all around, representing, at the same time, much that is original for a European.

No sooner have you turned your nose to the street than you meet a “doer” at the entrance of your apartment, with a sweet face offering you anything you want. These “deals” are a kind of commission agents and traders; They always have several carpets hanging over their shoulders, in their hands are hatchets and hammers from the times, they are sure, almost from Adam, and in their pockets are pearls and turquoise. If they don’t have what you need, just name it, and tomorrow they will deliver to you whatever you want. They themselves are not rich, but they have full credit at the market, where everything is loaned to them, even without a receipt, on commission. These people mostly hang out at the doors of Europeans, who are always eager to get something ancient in Persia. Del knows who you can make money from and who you can deceive, and therefore you have to bargain with him like a Jew, and in the end he will deceive you, selling you worthless turquoise, a faded carpet or some old knightly fittings from the times for real Tamerlane, with the mark of a Belgian factory of recent years, which was sent on purpose to Persia to deceive the stupid “Frengi” - the European, and which, so that it seemed old, rusty, was kept for a month in damp earth. Or he will immediately hand you coins from the time of Iskander, that is, Alexander the Great, minted a few weeks ago in Isfahan (where there is a whole factory of counterfeit coins). They made people intrusive, and if you allow them to come to you whenever they please, they will bother you even at night. From everything sold to you, they give a certain percentage (about 5%) to your servants, so that the next day they will be allowed to see you again - this is the custom.

13. “Fagirs” - beggars, keif (smoke opium)

Before you have time to move a few steps away from your house, you will be attacked by beggars - “fagirs” (not to be confused with “fakir”); They also love to huddle near the houses of Europeans and wait for hours for their exit.

14. Tehran Beggar

There are a lot of beggars in Tehran; Most of them are crippled, without arms and legs - this, of course, is in the form of memories of the impressive edifications given to them by their former masters, the khans, for some offenses.

15. Beggar

But there are also professional beggars. I knew a couple. He is a healthy, shirtless black man, she is a pretty Persian; They refused any work offered to them and had, as they say, a street romance with each other. It is very difficult to get rid of beggars; you need to directly drive them away from you; if you gave to one, then 5-10 will surround you and everyone will demand it. I knew one beggar who always asked like this: “I have guests this evening, I have nothing to buy fire with, please give me some.” Isn't it true that the original way to beg is for guests?

16. Dervish (kashkul in hand - begging bowl)

As soon as you get rid of the beggars, you will certainly stumble upon dervish(a kind of sect of wandering monks). He will directly block your path and shout: “Ya-hak! I am Ali!”, that is, he calls on the name of God and Ali, their prophet. Dervishes do not ask, but only cry out to God, but often their appearance is so impressive, and downright robber, that you involuntarily throw a coin into their coconut cup hanging on their hand. The dervishes are dressed in a variety of ways, for the most part - without a headdress, with disheveled hair and a beard; their faces look quite fierce. Dervishes are black and white; they walk barefoot, in wide white dirty trousers, and above the waist are mostly completely naked or only with a goat skin thrown over their shoulders; in their hands, in addition to a hollowed coconut on an alms chain, they always have a huge knotted club, or an iron hatchet, or an iron stick with an image of a bull's head at the upper end. Occasionally you will meet a dervish on a nag given to him, or a bull: this is a dervish riding a pilgrimage.

17.

Having gotten rid of the dervish, you continue on your way; but you have to not look around, but look not only forward, but also back, otherwise the constantly walking lines of camels and donkeys will certainly knock you off your feet into a ditch. Drivers are very unceremonious people, as are their cattle.

There are a lot of curious things on the street: here you see a Persian sitting by the ditch, smiling, stretching out his arm, bare to the shoulder, from which blood flows like a fountain, and next to him, also with a smile, a satisfied professor who has performed a successful operation. This is a barber who opened the blood of a patient suffering from some illness. In Persia it is customary get treatment bloodletting. Further, next to you you see a Persian squatting, with a mirror the size of an apple in his hands, and above his head trying to shave the middle of his head - “ustu”, that is, a shaving master; this is a street barber who unceremoniously spits on a razor and sharpens it on a belt hanging from his belt. Then suddenly you hear a terrible scream and see a bunch of people; out of curiosity you approach - and so what? The dentist, “dandun-usta,” with huge forceps, pulls a tooth from his compatriot, who is sitting on his haunches and roaring at the top of his lungs, who is still being pulled to the ground by other people. At some wall you will see hanging paintings painted with bright colors, depicting some kind of battles and snakes, always something incomprehensible and fantastic; As you approach, indeed, sometimes you will see something that we have never seen in Europe. Some eloquent Persian, walking in front of the painting, calls the people together in a loud voice and tells them the exploits of the fantastic Persian heroes. When a lot of people gather around him and he sees that there is hope of collecting something for the performance, he takes a pipe and begins to play, sitting on his haunches. Then, from the folds of his “anyhow,” that is, his wide robe, snakes begin to crawl out, circling and writhing in front of him; he takes them in his hands, wraps them around his neck, etc., and the snakes do not touch him; They say that the poison is burned out of them, but I don’t believe it. I myself saw how such a snake bit a chicken, which immediately, after suffering a little, died, and a dog, which ran away with a terrible squeal, having received an injection from the snake. At the suggestion of one fakir, I took the snake in my hands in front of my relatives, and it suddenly tensed up like a stick. Another time, the same fakir poured up to fifty of the local yellow and gray scorpions into a basin, then, taking one at a time, blew on it or put it in his mouth - and the scorpion was dead; having placed it, the fakir allows you to touch it; in conclusion, having blown on it again (in a different way - three times) and casting spells, he revives it and then quickly collects them with his hands into his box.

18. Snake charmer. Beginning of the 20th century

On the street you can also meet Persian gypsies with ugly monkeys doing all sorts of jumps to the sound of a tambourine, or Persian Jews selling various rags; or, finally, “hookahs,” that is, a person with a Persian hookah offering you for 1 kopeck. smoke disgusting dust instead of wonderful Persian “Shiraz” tobacco.

19. Kalyanchi

Sometimes you will meet 2-4 Persians leading a lioness on a chain - she belongs to the Shah, is tame, and can be petted. They take her through the streets to show some khans, for which the leaders are paid.

20.

All the time you walk, your ears are filled with noise from the shouts of various merchants. One shouts “fruit”; another “sweetness” (Persians are great hunters of sweets); the third is a soldier, dressed in a uniform, but nothing else, standing near a donkey, shouting “boiled beets” or “watermelons”; or the sherbet merchant offers ditch water, adding a little syrup to it; or “submensab”, i.e. an officer hurrying on a donkey, under an umbrella from the rain, to the Shah’s “selam”.

21. Street peddler

But then loud voices are heard behind you: “Khabarda,” that is, beware; you give way, and some people walk past you in pairs, at a quick pace, with sticks in their hands, and behind them, swaying on a saddle, rides some khan, an important person - without these people he does not go out, and this called "tashahus"; and if the khan does not have enough servants for “tashahus”, then when leaving, he hires others to go ahead; The greatness of the traveling Persian is determined by the number of accompanying people. Often, the “tashahus” people walking and sometimes driving ahead will fly at you and demand that you turn your face to the wall and close your eyes, which is what the Persians you meet do, otherwise they will be beaten. This is not necessary for Europeans, although the impudent Persians sometimes demand the same from them. This means that important ladies are coming. The streets are noisy; but either seids, descendants of the prophet, or women peeking out from under their robes, “chaders,” like some kind of mummies, are quietly walking past you; but if the Persian is pretty and is not visible near Muslims, then she will often open to show her always blackened eyes.

22. Grocers

After wandering around the streets, you will, of course, pop into the bazaars out of curiosity. There is also a lot of originality here. Bazaars, as I said earlier, are covered corridors, illuminated from above from openings, with open benches on the sides. In these corridors, trade is conducted, so to speak, according to the homogeneity of the goods sold. Here is a long corridor with shops for copper products: from it to the right there is a corridor with shops for silver, gold and bone products; there is a corridor of shoemakers; then a corridor with Persian fabrics, carpets, etc. But the most interesting part of the bazaar is the corridor with benches in which food is cooked; This is, so to speak, a gluttonous row. The Persians approach the shop and, without entering it, push money to the seller; They are served the required food in a cup or on “lavash” - bread, which they immediately eat, standing or squatting at the bench. At the same time, I must say that the Persians eat everything with their hands, without knives and forks, they even take liquid food with a bent piece of lavash, that is, Persian bread, which is baked into a thin pancake one to one and a half arsh. length.

23.

In all these bazaars the crowd is even greater than on the street, because caravans with camels and hinnies pass through them. The female sex, wrapped in veils, hangs around more where there are fabrics and silver items - here the merchants are more respectable. In every shop you can see a Persian sitting importantly on his heels, smoking a hookah; When you approach, he will only ask: “Is the Chi Saab flashing?” - “What does the master need?” - and only after your demand will it rise. There is also an interesting bazaar where cotton wool, cotton blankets and pillows are churned and sold. Breaking the cotton wool is done with a string stretched on a rather clumsy instrument, which is struck with a wooden mallet, causing the string to make a sad sound and break the cotton wool with its trembling.

paragraph 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 174

Question. Remember how the geopolitical position of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century. determined its relations with European countries and how it influenced the traditional way of life of Turkish society.

The governments of England and France would like to bring the empire under their influence. Therefore, they resolutely opposed the plans of Tsarist Russia, which sought to dismember the Ottoman state and seize the Black Sea straits. The Viennese court also hatched its own projects regarding Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Ottoman-Turkish feudalism had reached its maturity. The pace of further progress of society slowed down. There was a clear trend towards stagnation in economic life. It manifested itself in a reduction in income from agriculture, in the desire of peasants to limit the area under cultivation, and in the growing departure of rural residents to the cities. A decline in economic activity was also noted in the cities, which was facilitated by internal instability in the state, a shortage of agricultural raw materials and limited demand for handicraft products, preferential conditions in which European traders were placed in comparison with local artisans and merchants.

Political chaos in the empire increased due to the military weakness of the Porte. Defeats in the wars with Russia in the second half of the 18th century, constant civil strife in different parts of the state, the success of the Wahhabi movement in Arabia, who advocated a return to the purity of early Islam, indicated that, despite the efforts of the Sultan’s government, the Ottoman army was becoming less and less combat-ready , disorder and indiscipline reigned in it.

clause 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 178

1. Analyze the socio-economic and political situation of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century. and explain why it was rated critical.

2. Which countries in Europe, Asia and Africa were involved in the “Eastern Question”? Why are almost all international contradictions of the 19th century? were connected to the Ottoman Empire?

Local capital was of a commercial and usurious nature, artisans could not compete with European industry, the country's financial system was in disarray, and the government apparatus was paralyzed by corruption. Many sultans attempted reforms aimed at strengthening the army. An uprising began in the country, aggravated by external difficulties (war with France, England, Russia).

The weakening empire could no longer resist the forces that were destroying it. France began to subjugate Algeria, which became a source of cheap agricultural products and a market for French goods. Competition began between the great powers for influence in Egypt. France hoped to subjugate it, but Russia and England supported Turkey and did not allow France into Egypt.

All international contradictions were associated with the Ottoman Empire, since Türkiye was the largest state in the Islamic world. The Sultan was considered the ruler of Muslims; his supreme power was recognized by most of the Muslim states of North Africa - Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli, Egypt.

paragraph 2 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 179

Question. Describe the tanzimat policy.

Tanzimat - modernization reforms in the Ottoman Empire. Unlike previous reforms, the main place in the Tanzimat was not military, but socio-economic transformations.

The reform policy of the Turkish Sultan was defeated as the Ottoman Empire was defeated in another war with Russia and the Sultan returned to an oppressive form of government. The reforms were stopped. The country's situation continues to deteriorate, the Sultan declares state bankruptcy and transfers control of the country's finances to England, France, Italy, Germany, and Austria-Hungary.

The difficult economic situation gradually turned Turkey into a semi-colony of foreign countries. The great states of Europe began to select certain colonies of the empire.

paragraph 4 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 181

Question 1. What are the goals at the beginning of the 20th century? could unite broad sections of Turkish society into a single organization?

At the beginning of the 20th century, most of the enterprises, ports, and ships belonged to foreigners. The despotic regime, the groveling of the Sultan before foreigners, brought against him disparate forces - from the clergy to the officers.

Question 2. What reforms were continued in Turkey after the Young Turk revolution? Why do historians consider the results of this revolution limited?

The results of the reign of the Young Turks boiled down to the intensification of railway construction and rearmament of the army. Its results were limited: the main slogan was the idea of ​​uniting all the Muslim peoples of Asia. In reality, the Ottoman Empire had neither the economic nor the military power to solve such a problem.

paragraph 5 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 183

Question 1. Remember why already at the beginning of the 19th century. Persia turned out to be a semi-colony.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Persia was a very weak state, with all the signs of a low level of development. At the beginning of the 19th century, Persia had already become an arena of struggle between Russia, England and France.

Question 2. Under these conditions, what social movements matured in the country over the course of a century?

A struggle for a boycott of foreign goods began in the country, and peasant uprisings continued.

Question 3. Why did the Iranian revolution of 1905-1911 failed?

The bourgeois-democratic revolution in Iran coincided with the national liberation movement. It was caused by the dominance of foreigners in the financial and economic sphere of the country with the connivance of the reactionary ruling elite. The national bourgeoisie, small artisans, liberal landowners and peasants participated equally in the revolution. During the revolution, the Mejlis (parliament) was created and a constitution was adopted. As a result, the country is divided into spheres of influence between Russia and England.

Questions and assignments for paragraph page 183

Question 1. Prepare a short report on one of the topics: “Reform Sultans of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century,” “Division of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century,” “The Ottoman Empire in the politics of the European powers of the 19th century,” “National -liberation movement in the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.”

The reign of Selim III was marked by the confrontation between old and new in the social and political life of the country. Selim III paid main attention to military reforms. First of all, he tried to strengthen and streamline the traditional units of the Turkish army - the feudal cavalry and the Janissary army. In 1792, he issued a decree according to which the “timars” of those who did not fulfill their military duties to the state were confiscated to the state treasury. Another element of the empire’s military system was the Janissary corps, which by the time of Selim III was the cause of the country’s military weakness, the support of the feudal opposition and, more than once, an instrument for organizing courtyard intrigues and coups.

Attempts by Selim's predecessors to reorganize the Janissary corps and strengthen its former power did not bring success. Selim III supported those dignitaries who proposed creating a new, European-organized army. Since it was obvious that it would be impossible to immediately replace the old military organization, reformers paid some attention to improving the position of the traditional formations. For example, in the Janissary corps classes were scheduled several times a week in various types of military affairs. The new corps (Nizam-i-Jadid) was formed rather slowly, but new methods of training, new weapons and discipline produced results.

In the period 1792-1796. Decrees on a number of other reforms were published. Selim III carried out measures to strengthen the combat effectiveness and technical equipment of artillery. The army was provided with guns and instructors were invited. In a fairly short period of time, the Sultan managed to create a significant fleet. Educational institutions opened. An artillery department was organized at the Naval Engineering School. A military engineering school was also opened.

The desire to improve the training of military specialists led to the translation into Turkish of a number of European works on military affairs, mathematics and other sciences.

These books had to be printed, as a result, the first printing house resumed its work in 1792, and in 1795 another one was opened. Of course, the reforms of Selim III were his military goal, because he wanted to restore the former power of the empire. However, the ruling circles are beginning to understand that all the problems of the state cannot be solved by military reforms.

Among Selim's other measures to improve the situation in the state were the following. He tried to encourage the local textile industry (fabric production) and transferred all issues of food supply to the capital into the hands of the state. However, he could not resist introducing new taxes, since the reforms he carried out required more and more government funds. And this led to discontent among the peasant population, which was supported by the clergy and separatist feudal lords.

Selim III made attempts to strengthen the authority of the central government; for this purpose, a decree was issued defining the procedure for organizing the provinces. The law emphasized that provincial governors were appointed by the central government and were subordinate to the sultan and grand vizier.

The reforms failed to produce real results. Among the events that complicated the implementation and implementation of reforms, as well as aggravated the situation of the empire itself, was the Franco-Turkish War of 1798. After this war, Turkey's foreign policy position remained stable for some time, but a national liberation movement began in the Balkan provinces of the empire. Problems in the country caused a new wave of reformism among the government.

Question 2. Compare the situation of Turkey and Iran at the beginning of the 20th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the formerly large Ottoman Empire finally lost its former influence on the course of world history, turning into a semi-colony of the West. European states declared the Ottoman Empire the “sick man of Europe” and arrogated to themselves the right to decide his fate. There was an actual division of Ottoman territories. Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian occupation, the French ruled in Tunisia, and England captured Egypt. Formally, these territories remained part of the Ottoman Empire, but in fact they came under the complete control of foreign states. Using all possible means, foreign capital has taken key positions in all areas of the Turkish economy. This hampered the development of national industry, where the manufacturing method of production reigned.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Iran remained a backward country, a semi-colony of England and Russia. The highest power in the country belonged to the Shah, who came from the Qajar dynasty (ruled since the end of the 18th century). In the Iranian village, where more than half the population lived, feudal relations and landlord tyranny prevailed. Large national industry did not develop through foreign competition. Craftsmen, whose products could not withstand the competition of cheap foreign factory-produced goods, were in a difficult situation.

The deep economic and political crisis that Iran was experiencing, the dominance of foreigners, the rotten state system, the unbearable living conditions of the common people - all this contributed to the rise of the popular movement at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Question. What policy did the French authorities pursue towards the local population during the colonization of Algeria?

The French authorities pursued a policy of colonial expansion.

It's no secret that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Persia was an unusual mixture of old and new traditions that were embodied in everyday life. Despite the introduction of the latest Western developments, harems, slaves and strange traditions could still be seen here. We invite you to look at photographs of that time, which are completely different from anything you could imagine.

The last Shahs of the Qajar dynasty struggled to modernize the country. Engineers from Russia built the telegraph, the French trained the army, airplanes appeared in Tehran - at that moment the last word in technology. The pilots, of course, were daredevils, but the girl in a burqa and dirty shoes, proprietiously leaning on the plane in this photo, looks no less dashing.

Shah Nasser ad-Din, who ruled Persia in the second half of the 19th century, was fond of photography from his youth. He set up his own photo studio in the palace and appointed Anton Sevryugin from Russia, who had a photo studio in Tehran, as the first court photographer. Sevryugin filmed the Shah and the courtiers, but the path to the women’s half of the palace was closed. Nasser ad-Din personally photographed his harem.

In Persia of those years, the telegraph, airplanes and cameras coexisted with the medieval order. Numerous wives and concubines of the nobility were served by eunuchs and slaves from Africa and the Caucasus. Slavery was banned only in 1929, after the overthrow of the Qajar dynasty.

The harem of Mozafereddin Shah, the son and successor of Nasser ad-Din, has nothing in common with the fantasies of Europeans who have read oriental fairy tales. This is not "A Thousand and One Nights" - no half-naked girls and belly dancing. It looks more like a peaceful family portrait: women look decorously into the lens, mischievous children crawl under the table.

The daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din, the chubby beauty Akhtar ad-Daula, poses with her maids. In the second half of the 19th century, Persian ideas about beauty - both female and male - differed markedly from European ones. Noble girls did not strive to lose weight and flaunted thick eyebrows, and sometimes light facial hair.

A group of women with a goat in the andaruni (inner chambers) of the Shah's palace. The veils on their heads were surprisingly combined with miniskirts that would have caused a scandal in any European capital of the time.

The beloved concubine often appears in photographs taken by Nasser ad-Din, and each time in a new outfit - either in a Persian skirt, or in a European dress, or in a Japanese kimono. The girl was a Circassian beauty and, most likely, a slave.

The Shah's granddaughter Ismat al-Muluk and her relatives make faces in front of the camera. You won’t see anything like this on Instagram, but in the 19th century they didn’t joke with photos. For the photo to be successful, people had to sit motionless in front of the camera for several minutes with a blank face. But the law is not written for princesses, especially in cases where their own grandfather is hiding under the cover of the cell.

Another photograph of Ismat is also not entirely serious. She stands next to her sister Fakhr al-Taj, and their father, the Shah's son-in-law, is lying under a chair.

Next to the Shah’s granddaughter Fakhr al-Taj, her mother, the daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din Ismat ad-Daula, took a nap on the bench.

Another granddaughter of the Shah is Ismat al-Muluk with a goat in her arms next to her husband.

Musicians and dances in the city of Selmas.

Despite traditional clothing and head coverings, the girls at the girls' school study the most advanced science of the time, and the classroom is equipped with microscopes - not a cheap pleasure.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Persia embarked on the path of modernization, which turned out to be very difficult for the country. In 1905-1911 Persia is engulfed in revolution. The revolutionaries tried to introduce a Constitution in the country and give power to the mezhdlis (parliament). Formally, Iran has always remained independent. However, Russia and England competed for influence over him for a long time. In 1907 they divided Iran into spheres of influence. Russia dominated in the north, England dominated in the south. Iran has actually turned into a semi-colony of these countries.
Although Iran tried to remain neutral in World War I, battles between the Turks and the Russians and the British broke out in its western regions. After the October Revolution, as is known, Russia came out of the war. Russian troops are withdrawn and the British take their place. From northern Iran, the British tried to help the white armies and anti-Bolshevik movements in Transcaucasia and Central Asia (for example, the Kokand Autonomy).

Rice. 1. One of the last shahs of the Qajar dynasty is Mozafferdin.

Rice. 2. Reza Shah Pahlavi.

As you know, the Bolsheviks tried to spark a world revolution not only in Europe, but also in the East. The Bolsheviks helped the Turk Ataturk, now they have taken on Iran. In 1920-1921 In northwestern Iran, there was the Soviet Gilan Republic, created with the help of Soviet Russia. The republic was headed by Mirza Kuchek Khan. However, the experiment with communism in Iran naturally failed.
Iran is a multinational country. Persians make up a little more than half the population here. In the northwest, Kurds and Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis live here (Fig. 4). The Kurds are a divided people living at the junction of Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Iranian Azerbaijanis played a huge role in the history of Iran. Moreover, there are much more Azerbaijanis in Iran than in Azerbaijan itself. About a third of the population were nomads.

Change of ruling dynasty

Iran has been ruled by the Qajar dynasty for more than a hundred years (Fig. 1). She is Turkic in origin, but by the end she almost completely adopted the Persian language, culture, and customs. The Qajars, like the Ottomans, failed to adapt to the new realities and trends of the 20th century.
In 1921, General Reza Khan carried out a coup d'etat. After some time, he will become prime minister, and will expel the last monarch of the Qajar dynasty to Europe. And in 1925, the obedient mezhdlis proclaimed the former Cossack chieftain Shahinshah (“king of kings”) of Persia (Fig. 2). The Qajar dynasty was overthrown, Reza Shah founded a new dynasty - Pahlavi (from Parthian - “brave, noble”). This name emphasized its ancient, Iranian origin.

Reforms

Reza Shah Pahlavi began to carry out quite radical reforms. Under him, Persia experienced a widespread national revival. The Shah visited Ankara several times. He admired Atatürk's reforms and imitated him. He even considered the option of introducing a republic so that, like Ataturk, he could become its president. Reza Shah began industrialization, and large investments were made in industry. Tax benefits were created for private investors. Railways and highways, seaports and airfields were built. Oil was discovered in Iran at the beginning of the 20th century. Now the British were actively developing it. Instead of Sharia courts, legal proceedings were introduced

Rice. 3. Persian Cossack Brigade

European type. The Iranian army was created on the basis of the Cossack brigade. The authorities are forcing nomads to settle.
In 1935, Persia returned the ancient self-name “Iran” (“country of the Aryans”). The pre-Islamic past was carefully revived. Cities were renamed and pre-Islamic monuments were restored. The calendar was transferred from lunar Islamic to solar chronology, and the names of ancient Iranian months were introduced. The non-Islamic holiday of Navruz was celebrated. Following the example of Ataturk, Reza ordered the Iranian Academy to be cleared of Arabisms. Then, however, it turned out that this would affect half of the vocabulary. A project to translate writing into Latin appeared. Feudal titles were withdrawn from use. Surnames and names have been translated into the European style.

Rice. 4. Iran and Afghanistan

A system of free, universal and compulsory primary and secondary education was created. Even Boy Scout troops emerged. Secular schools and women's education appeared. A university was opened in Tehran.
Instead of Muslim clothing and headdresses, European ones are introduced. An attempt was made to emancipate women and equalize their rights with men. Women could remove the veil. Women appeared in government institutions. Parades of schoolgirls in sports uniforms were amazing for an Islamic country. Novels and comedies appeared in literature. They began to write about women's emancipation for the first time.

Results and consequences of reforms

The reforms turned out to be quite painful for society. Reza Shah did not follow the example of the Turks in the field of religion, but, nevertheless, he prohibited the Hajj and the festival of Ashura (ritual self-torture). The Islamic Shiite (Iran is the only Shiite country) clergy accused the Shah of disrespect for religion, kowtowing to an alien (Western) culture, and called for a boycott of secular courts and schools. In 1935, soldiers shot at a crowd in the holy city of Mashhad who were protesting against wearing European clothing. The soldiers tore the veils off the women, tearing them to pieces with bayonets. The clergy incited backward nomadic tribes against the “godless” government. In response, the authorities poison the wells of the nomads, dooming them to death. He beat one mullah who criticized Reza Shah during prayer, and kept another in prison for years. In 1937, the Ayatollah, one of the country's spiritual leaders, was killed. After this, the clergy were afraid to argue with the Shah. Nevertheless, protest potential was accumulating. After 40 years, the Islamic clergy became the main opposition to the Shah's regime.
Reza's reforms were not as radical and effective as in Turkey. The government did not have as much will to carry out reforms. And the Iranian people showed less understanding of the reforms than ordinary Turks who lived next to Europe and experienced its influence for centuries. Iran lagged behind Turkey in reforms, although the Arab nations lagged even further behind.