RAM controller in the processor. Integrated memory controller and north bridge
By memory called a device designed for records (storage) And reading information.
The controller memory stores:
- manufacturer's service programs,
- user programs,
- controller configuration,
- data blocks (values of variables, timers, counters, markers, etc.).
Properties of memory. Memory is characterized by:
- Memory capacity (KB, MB or GB).
- Speed or memory access time.
- Energy dependence. Behavior after power failure.
Rice. 3.4 Types of memory(drawing by the author).
Operationalmemory(RAM - random access memory).
Advantage.
Is the most express semiconductor electronic memory designed for short-term storage of information.
Flaw.
The main property of this memory is volatility, i.e. loss of data after turning off the electrical power.
For buffering random access memory Some controllers use batteries or high-capacity electrical capacitors that can retain an electrical charge for up to several days.
The RAM element is an electronic trigger (static memory) or an electrical capacitor (dynamic memory).
Rice. 3.5 Trigger - the main element of RAM memory(drawing by the author).
Dynamic memory requires cyclic recharging of capacitors, however, it is cheaper than static memory.
Memory Matrixrepresents totality individual memory cells - triggers.
Row 1 of the matrix contains 8 memory cells (8 Bits correspond to 1 Byte).
Each memory cell has its own unique address (row no. “point” no. bit).
Rows (bits) are numbered from right to left from “0” to “7”.
Lines (bytes) are numbered from top to bottom, starting with “0”.
Rice. 3.6 Memory Matrix(drawing by the author).
Persistent memory (ROM - read only memory) Designed for long-term storage of information. The main difference from RAM is that it capable of storing information without a power source, i.e. is non-volatile.
This memory, in turn, is divided into two types: once(ROM) – and repeatedly reprogrammable(PROM)
Reprogrammable memory recorded by the user using programmers. To do this, you must first erase memory contents .
Refers to the old type of reprogrammable memory EPROM- memory erased by ultraviolet rays (EPROM - erasable programmable read only memory).
Rice. 3.7 EPROM memory erased by ultraviolet rays (source http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Eprom.jpg).
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is an electrically erasable reprogrammable read-only memory (EEPROM), a type of non-volatile memory (such as PROM and EPROM ). This type of memory can be erased and refilled with data up to a million times.
Today, the classic two-transistor EEPROM technology has been almost completely replaced by NOR flash memory. However, the name EEPROM is firmly attached to this memory segment, regardless of technology.
Rice. 3.8 Flash memory programming.
(sourcehttp://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Flash_programming_ru.svg).
Flash memory (flash memory) - a type of solid-state semiconductor non-volatile rewritable memory.
It can be read as many times as desired (within the data storage period, typically 10-100 years), but it can be written to such memory only a limited number of times (maximum - about a million cycles). It does not contain moving parts, so, unlike hard drives, it is more reliable and compact.
Due to its compactness, low cost and low power consumption, flash memory is widely used in digital portable devices.Conditional division of controller memory areas
The controller provides the following memory areas to store the user program, data and configuration.
Boot memory – this is non-volatile memory for the user program,
data and configuration. When a project is loaded into the controller, it is first stored in load memory. This memory is either on the memory card (if available) or directly built-in. Non-volatile memory information is also retained when the power is turned off. The memory card supports more memory than the memory built into the controller.
Working memoryis a volatile memory. The controller copies some design elements from load memory to working memory. This memory area is lost when power is lost, and when power returns, the controller restores it.
Retained memory – This is non-volatile memory for a limited number of working memory values. This memory is used to selectively save important user information in the event of a power loss. During a power failure, the controller has enough time to save the values of a limited number of memory addresses. When the power is turned on, these stored values are restored.
Data recovery
Rice. 3.9 Phases of information recovery (drawing by the author).
1. Information about the state of the control process stored in RAM is called management process POU. Those. all physical terminals of the input-output block have virtual counterparts (flip-flops) in the controller memory. Typically, to increase the speed of information exchange, the processor accesses information from the RAM (rather than the physical input/output terminals). The results of program processing from the process image are written to the output terminals cyclically.
2. After the supply voltage is turned off (the voltage drops below a critical level), the most important information is retained back from RAM to EEPROM. The areas of data to be saved are determined by the user.
In the first month of autumn, we are actively examining the issues of choosing RAM for a new personal computer. Since all modern systems exclusively support DDR3 memory type, this is what we are talking about in the articles. In previous articles, we examined the issues of choosing RAM memory sticks and its types; in a separate article, we focused on the issues of choosing the optimal amount of memory for a personal computer. In this final review article, we would like to dwell on the issues of choosing RAM in relation to processor platforms existing on the markets.
Consideration of socket platforms should begin with the fact that each processor socket is designed for a specific type of processor, and their own chips are produced for motherboards. The RAM controller is built into modern processors, so we can safely say that the type of recommended memory depends entirely on the central processor, and the type of processor used depends on the selected socket and platform. Let's start with the popular socket platforms from AMD.
One of the popular and at the same time upsetting users was socket A MD Socket FM1. This socket is designed to use AMD Llano processors. These processors have an integrated RAM controller and a good graphics core. The maximum officially supported operating frequency of RAM sticks for this socket is 1866 MHz. Therefore, we recommend purchasing these RAM sticks, since they are quite affordable today. It should be separately noted that the FM1 format processor controller has the ability to show excellent overclocking potential of memory, so it makes sense to take a closer look at well-overclockable modules if you are planning overclocking on the basis of this platform.
The picture is clickable --
In just two weeks, new processors based on the platform will be officially presented Socket FM2 for AMD Trinity processors. AMD, which was famous for the continuity of platforms, “threw” buyers of the FM1 platform and they will now not be able to install new generation processors in their system.
The new AMD Trinity processors are based on the Piledriver architecture, which means that the processing cores of these processors will have to work faster than those of AMD Llano. An update to the integrated graphics in processors is reported. In particular, the fastest graphics unit will be the AMD Radeon HD 7660D. It should be noted that the architecture of these cores is not similar to the architecture of discrete AMD Radeon HD 7000 video cards, for example, Tahiti cores, so you shouldn’t place much hope on beautiful numbers.
A significant encouraging fact is that AMD has reassured users with the long existence of socket FM2, so it is unlikely that buyers of this platform will consider owners of Socket FM1 a year after the announcement.
According to preliminary data, the memory controller of the dual-core AMD A6-5400K processor with integrated AMD Radeon HD 7540D graphics and a heat dissipation level of 65 watts will support DDR3 memory with a maximum frequency of only 1600 MHz. All other older solutions AMD A8-5500, AMD A8-5600K, AMD A10-5700 will have to support the fastest certified DDR3 memory - 1866 MHz.
It should be noted that AMD A6-5400K buyers should not chase DDR3-1600 MHz memory. Regular overclocking will allow you to reach a frequency of 1866 MHz, and if you refuse overclocking, the memory will still be able to work as usual with an operating frequency of 1600 MHz. But when selling memory sticks on the secondary market, you may have problems selling outdated DDR3-1600 MHz.
The controllers for AMD Llano and AMD Trinity processors are dual-channel, so the brackets must be purchased in pairs.
The picture is clickable --
Socket AM3 from AMD is the first processor platform with an integrated DDR3 RAM controller. Previous platforms 939, AM2, AM2+ supported exclusively DDR2 memory type. The controller of these processors is dual-channel, so RAM must be installed in an even number of sticks. The official base frequency for these processors is 1333 MHz DDR3 type. If you plan to overclock, it makes sense to purchase faster brackets. Since the AM3 platform is becoming a thing of history, when buying a new computer you still need to buy the most optimal memory for the price, preferably with an operating frequency of 1866 MHz. Integrated profiles will allow it to run at a base frequency of 1333 MHz.
We should not forget about the existence of processors with an unlocked multiplier for the AM3 platform - the AMD Black Edition series. The RAM controllers of these processors support strips with frequencies up to 1600 MHz. Despite this, experience shows that the controllers of these processors practically cannot go beyond the frequency of 1866 MHz, so purchasing overclocker memory kits for these solutions makes no sense.
The picture is clickable --
The latest generation of sockets from AMD for conventional processors is AM3+. This socket is designed for Bulldozer series processors and upcoming Vishera processors. AMD FX processors are based on these architectures. All these processors have an updated dual-channel memory controller, so the modules should be purchased in pairs. The officially supported frequency is 1866 MHz. Users are actively and aggressively overclocking AMD FX series processors, so it is recommended to take a closer look at well-overclocked modules. The controller of these processors can easily reach the figure of 2133 MHz in memory, so memory modules are most often the limiting factor.
The picture is clickable --
Gradually we move on to reviewing the company's sockets Intel. The company's main socket platform is LGA 1155, which is used for older generation Intel Sandy Bridge and new generation Intel Ivy Bridge processors. The RAM controller of these processors is dual-channel, so the modules should be purchased and installed in pairs. If you are assembling an overclocking platform on the appropriate motherboard chipset and buying the corresponding “K” series processor, then you should take a closer look at overclocking RAM with an operating frequency of 2133 MHz or even 2400 MHz.
If you are not planning on overclocking or did not know that you need to purchase motherboards with chipsets marked “P” or “Z”, and a processor with an unlocked multiplier, there is no point in spending money. Buy standard memory modules and live in peace.
On the socket LGA 1156 We will not stop, since it has gone down in history. Let us just note that the controller of these processors is dual-channel. For overclocking, it is also recommended to purchase good memory modules. In many cases, you can get by with strips with an operating frequency of 1866 MHz.
The picture is clickable --
Platform LGA 1366 Unlike LGA 1156, it continues to live. This platform is the first and only one with a three-channel RAM controller in processors. The peculiarities of overclocking processors based on the Gulftown core indicate that for success it is necessary to purchase high-quality sets of overclocker RAM. If the budget is limited, it is quite possible to limit yourself to strips with a frequency of 1866 MHz.
The picture is clickable --
Platform LGA 2011- a solution for enthusiasts who want to buy Intel Sandy Bridge-E processors. The cost of processors and motherboards of this format are at the highest high level. The processor has a four-channel RAM controller, so installing four modules at the same time is the minimum requirement for the user. Considering the high cost of overclocking kits for four memory sticks, we can only recommend purchasing them if you have an unlimited budget. In the standard case, regular 1866 MHz sticks from Samsung or Hynix.
I really hope that this article will help you decide on the choice of memory for your processor.
Hello Giktimes! Upgrading RAM is the most basic type of PC upgrade, as long as you're lucky and don't stumble upon one of the many hardware incompatibilities. We tell you in what cases a set of cool RAM will not “start” on an old PC, why on some platforms you can increase RAM only with the help of “selected” modules, and we warn about other characteristic quirks of hardware.
We know about RAM that there is never too much of it, and that, depending on the antiquity of the computer, you have to choose from very old DDR, old DDR2, mature DDR3 and modern DDR4. At this point, the guide at the level of “well, the main thing is to buy it, and then it will somehow work, or exchange it, if anything” could be completed - it’s time to consider the pleasant and not so specific in the selection of hardware. That is, cases when:
- It should work, but for some reason it doesn't
- the upgrade is not cost-effective or is it better to do it in a multi-step manner
- I want to carry out the modernization with “little blood” in accordance with the potential of the PC
Check where the controller is located
If you're upgrading an outdated computer not just for the "love of the art" but also for practical reasons, it makes sense to first evaluate how viable the hardware platform is before investing in it. The most archaic of the current ones are chipsets for Socket 478 (Pentium IV, Celeron), which extend from platforms with support for SDRAM PC133 (Intel 845 chipset, for example), through mainstream DDR-based options, up to later, strikingly more modern chipsets with DDR2 support PC2-5300 (Intel 945GC, etc.).
Previously, controllers were located outside the processor, but now, as it happens, they work from inside
Against this background, alternatives from the AMD camp of the same time look less colorful: all chipsets for Socket 754, which housed the Athlon 64, representatives of the K8 microarchitecture, support DDR memory, the same type of memory was supported by processors for Socket 939 (Athlon 64 and the first dual-core Athlon 64 X2). Moreover, in the case of AMD chips, the memory controller was built into the processor - now this approach would not surprise anyone, but Intel purposefully kept the controller in the chipset, precisely in order to combine processors for the same socket with new types of RAM.
For this reason, subsequent AMD chips for socket AM2/AM2+ with a RAM controller under the processor cover worked only with DDR2, and Intel with its “long-lived” Socket 775 extended the pleasure with DDR to the very tomatoes of DDR3! In more modern platforms, both processor manufacturers have switched to an on-chip CPU controller, and such tricks with supporting assorted RAM are a thing of the past.
When is it cheaper to change a chipset than to shell out for old memory?
This cumbersome list is not needed to impress readers with the breadth and abundance of chipsets in outdated PCs, but to provide a little unexpected upgrade maneuver. The essence of this simple maneuver is that sometimes it will be more rational to purchase a motherboard with support for cheaper and more modern memory, rather than fork out for the already rare RAM of the previous generation.Because the same amount of DDR2 memory on the secondary market will be at least 50% more expensive than DDR3 memory of comparable capacity. Not to mention that DDR3 has not yet been removed from the assembly line, so it can be purchased in new condition, in an inexpensive kit.
And with new chipsets, it becomes possible to expand RAM to values that are relevant today. For example, if you compare prices in Russian retail, then 8 gigabytes (2x 4 Gb) of DDR2 memory with a frequency of 800 MHz will cost you about 10 thousand rubles, and the same amount of DDR3 memory with a frequency of 1600 MHz (Kingston Value RAM KVR16N11/8, for example) - 3800-4000 rubles. Taking into account the sale and purchase of a motherboard for an old PC, the idea looks reasonable.
The realities of upgrading computers with native DDR and DDR2 support have long been known to everyone:
- memory modules with different timings and frequencies most often they manage to work together, and “alignment” occurs either according to the SPD profile in a less powerful module, or (what’s worse) the motherboard chooses a standard profile for working with RAM. As a rule, with the minimum allowable clock frequency.
- the number of modules, ideally, should be equal to the number of channels. Two memory sticks with a capacity of 1 GB each in an old PC will work faster than four modules with a capacity of 512 MB. Fewer modules means lower load on the controller, higher efficiency.
Two channels in the controller - two memory modules for maximum performance. The rest is a compromise between capacity and speed.
- V two-channel mode modules of equal volume work more efficiently. In other words, 1 GB + 1 GB will be better than 1 GB + 512 MB + 512 MB.
- evaluate platform performance before purchasing memory. Because some chipsets do not reveal the potential of even their “antediluvian” type of RAM. For example, the Intel 945 Express platform is equipped with a dual-channel DDR2 controller supporting frequencies up to 667 MHz. This means that the platform will recognize the DDR2 PC6400 modules you purchased, but the modules will be limited in performance and will work only as PC2-5300, “identical to natural ones.”
The Intel LGA775 socket is one of the options when buying a motherboard with DDR3 support is easier and cheaper than upgrading memory with a platform based on the old version of DDR
And, it seems, this list of nuances is enough to make you want to “drag” an LGA775-based computer to a chipset with DDR3 support. However, you will still laugh, but upgrading an old platform with new RAM also has its own nuances.
In debut platforms with DDR3 support (Intel x4x and x5x chipsets and AMD analogues of the same time), controllers can only work with old-style modules. An absurd situation? Yes, but the fact remains a fact.
The fact is that old systems do not speak the “language of communication” with modules that are equipped with high-density memory chips. At the everyday level, this means that this module, whose 4 gigabytes are “spread” across eight chips on the front side of the printed circuit board, will not be able to work in an old PC. And the old module, in which the same volume is implemented on 16 chips (8 on each side) with a similar volume and frequency, will be operational.
Such compatibility problems are typical, for example, for the desktop Intel G41 Express (the same one that carries a considerable share of the surviving Core 2 Duo or Core 2 Quad) or the mobile Intel HM55 (laptops based on the first generation Intel Core based on the Nehalem microarchitecture).
Sometimes motherboard/laptop manufacturers release new BIOS versions in order to teach older platforms to work with new RAM revisions, but most often there is no talk of any long-term support for old equipment. And, unfortunately, there is no talk of any special series of memory for owners of “outdated, but not quite” PCs - memory production has moved forward and turning it back is very expensive.
In order not to bother with such concepts as “memory chip density,” at the household level, owners of old PCs are advised to look for Double-sided DIMM, dual-sided memory modules that are more likely to be compatible with debut DDR3-based platforms. In the Kingston model line, a suitable option would be HyperX Blu KHX1333C9D3B1K2/4G - 4 GB DDR3 module for desktops with sixteen memory modules on board. It's not so easy to find on sale, but if you want 16 GB on an old PC, know how to spin.
And yes, the “best of the archaic” chipsets, such as the Intel P35 Express, for example, are also content with DDR3 support at 1333 instead of the 1600 MHz typical for modern budget platforms.
HyperX Blu KHX1333C9D3B1K2 is one of the few ways to get 16 GB of RAM in older PCs
No diversity - no problem
After a long-term “stronghold of resistance” with the memory controller in the northbridge of Intel platforms, experiments stopped. All new Intel and AMD platforms included a controller under the cover of the CPU itself. This, of course, is bad from the point of view of the longevity of the platform (you can’t do the trick and “switch” to a new type of memory with an old processor), but RAM manufacturers adjusted and, as you can see, DDR3 memory has not lost its popularity even in 2017. Its carriers today are the following platforms:| AMD | Intel |
| am3 | lga1366 |
| am3+ | lga1156 |
| fm1 | lga1155 |
| fm2 | lga1150 |
| fm2+ | lga2011 |
The list of processor architectures based on these platforms is much more extensive! But there is less variety in the choice of memory, or rather almost none. The only exception is AMD processors for socket AM3, which, to the delight of budget-conscious buyers, are compatible with socket AM2, AM2+. Accordingly, the “reds” equipped such processors with a universal controller that supports both DDR2 memory (for AM2+) and DDR3. True, in order to “boost” DDR3 on Socket AM3 to frequencies of 1333 and 1600 MHz, you will have to additionally tinker with the settings.
This is roughly how new computers based on DDR3 and competing memory types compared in the recent past
The principles for selecting memory in the case of DDR3-based platforms are as follows:
- for FM1, FM2 and FM2+, if we are talking about an APU with powerful integrated graphics, you can and should choose the most powerful RAM. Even old chips based on FM1 are able to cope with DDR3 at a frequency of 1866 MHz, and chips based on the Kaveri microarchitecture and its “restyling” Godavari in some cases squeeze out all the juice even from extremely overclocked DDR3 at a frequency of 2544 MHz! And these are not “corn” megahertz, but really useful in real work scenarios. Therefore, overclocking memory is simply necessary for such computers.
Performance gains in AMD APUs depending on RAM frequency (source: ferra.ru)
It’s worth starting, for example, with modules HyperX HX318C10F - they already work “in the base” at 1866 MHz and CL10, and when overclocked they will come in handy for clock-sensitive AMD hybrid processors.
AMD APUs desperately need high-frequency memory
- "antique" Intel processors on LGA1156 and its server brother LGA1366 platforms capable of riding high-frequency DDR3 only if the multiplier is correctly selected. Intel itself guarantees stable operation exclusively within the “up to 1333 MHz” range. By the way, do not forget that in addition to supporting ECC registered memory, the LGA1366 and LGA2011 server platforms offer three- and four-channel DDR3 controllers. And they remain, perhaps, the only candidates for upgrading RAM to 64 GB, because non-registered memory modules with a capacity of 16 GB are almost never found in nature. But in LGA2011, memory overclocking has become easily possible up to 2400 MHz.
- Almost all processors based on microarchitectures Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge (LGA1155) support RAM with frequencies up to 1333 MHz. It is no longer possible to increase the clock generator frequency and thus achieve “easy” overclocking in this generation of Intel Core. But models with an unlocked multiplier and the “correct” motherboard can go far beyond the notorious 1333 MHz, so for Z-chipsets and processors with the K suffix it makes sense to spend money on modules HyperX Fury HX318C10F - the standard 1866 MHz is “driveable” almost to the maximum values for Bridge processors. It won't seem enough!
- LGA1150, a carrier of chips based on Haswell and Broadwell microarchitectures, became the last of Intel’s “civilian” platforms with support for DDR3, but the methods of interaction with RAM have not changed much since the days of Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge. Unless support for mass DDR3 models with a frequency of 1600 MHz has finally come to life. If we talk about overclocking, then the theoretical maximum for processors with unlocked multipliers on overclocking motherboards is 2933 MHz! The maximum is the maximum, but with support for XMP profiles in modern DDR3 modules, achieving high frequencies on aging memory types is no longer difficult.
DDR4 is the fastest, most basic memory to upgrade and purchase
It’s hard to call DDR4 SDRAM memory a new product - after all, Intel processors Skylake, the first mass-produced CPUs with DDR4 on board, came out back in 2015 and managed to get a “restyling” in the form of slightly more optimized and efficient overclocking ones Kaby Lake . And in 2016, AMD demonstrated a platform with DDR4 support. True, it was just a demonstration, because the AM4 socket is intended for AMD “finally serious competition” RyZEN processors, which have just been declassified.
DDR4 is still very young, but in order to unlock the potential of four-channel controllers on the Intel LGA 2011-v3 platform, overclocker memory is already needed
With the choice of memory for supernova platforms, everything is extremely simple - the frequency of mass-produced DDR4 modules starts at 2133 MHz (they are also achievable on DDR3, but “in a jump”), and the volume starts at 4 GB. But buying a “starter” DDR4 configuration today is as short-sighted as being content with DDR3 with a frequency of 800 MHz at the dawn of its appearance.
The memory controller built into processors based on the LGA1151 platform is dual-channel, which means that you need to fit into a couple of modules, the capacity of which is enough for modern games. Today this volume is 16 GB (no, we’re not kidding - with 8 GB of RAM in 2017 you won’t be able to “deny yourself anything”), and as for the clock frequency, DDR4-2400 memory has become the right mainstream.
In server/extreme processors for the LGA 2011-v3 platform, the memory controller is already four-channel, and of all types of RAM, only DDR4-2133 is de jure supported, but overclocking memory based on the Intel X99 chipset with Intel Core i7 Extreme is not easy, but very easy . Well, a computer for maximalists needs memory for maximalists - for example, “the toughest” HyperX Predator DDR4 HX432C16PB3K2 with a clock frequency of 3200 MHz. According to the “go for a walk” principle, the LGA 2011-v3 platform must be equipped with all four modules - only in this case will the four-channel controller be able to realize the full speed potential of the memory subsystem.
In order not to cram the rules and exceptions
What can be added to the nuances of choice described above? A lot of things: specific all-in-one nettops with non-reference design of components, laptops of the same model with completely different potential for upgrades, individual capricious models of motherboards and other “rake” that are easy to stumble upon if you have not followed hardware trends on the forums enthusiasts.In this case, Kingston offers online configurator. With its help, you can select guaranteed compatible and efficient RAM for desktops, workstations, nettops, ultrabooks, servers, tablets and other devices.
There is a reason to check the compatibility of the PC hardware with the memory you are considering buying, so as not to return to the store and explain to consultants that “the memory is functional, but my computer needs DDR3-1600, which is not quite the usual DDR3-1600.”
Don't leave old people to their fate!
Don't you think - upgrading memory is really more troublesome the older the computer is. This article does not cover all possible difficulties and particulars in choosing memory (it is almost physically impossible, and you would be tired of going through the entire summary of such trifles). But this is not a reason to send still working hardware to the dustbin of history.
You can light up at any age
Because outdated PCs from our overclocking-enthusiast bell towers can still do a good job for less ambitious users or retrain as a home server/media center, and we won’t be performing yet another song to the “immortal” Sandy Bridge, which celebrated its sixth anniversary and is still good. I wish you high performance and fair winds in upgrading your PC!
Fast RAM is good, but fast RAM at a discount is even better! Therefore, do not miss the opportunity to purchase any of the HyperX Savage DDR4 and HyperX Predator DDR4 memory kits with a 10% discount using a promotional code before March 8 DDR4FEB in Yulmart. There is no such thing as too much memory, and even more so with powerful and cool memory for new PC platforms!
For more product information Kingston And HyperX please visit the company's official website. HyperX will help you choose your kit
Memory
Memory is a device for storing information. It consists of random access and permanent storage devices. The random access memory device is called RAM, read only memory - ROM.
RAM - volatile memory
RAM is designed for recording, reading and storing programs (system and application), initial data, intermediate and final results. Direct access to memory elements. Other name - RAM(Random Access Memory) random access memory. All memory cells are combined into groups of 8 bits (1 byte) and each such group has an address at which it can be accessed. RAM is used for temporary storage of data and programs. When you turn off the computer, the information in RAM is erased. RAM is volatile memory. Modern computers typically have between 512 MB and 4 GB of memory. Modern application programs often require 128–256, or even 512 MB of memory for their execution, otherwise the program simply will not be able to work.
RAM can be built on dynamic chips (Dinamic Random Access Memory - DRAM) or static (Static Random Access Memory - SRAM) type. Static memory has significantly higher performance, but is much more expensive than dynamic memory. For register memory (MPC and cache memory) SRAM is used, and the main memory RAM is built on the basis of DRAM chips.
ROM is non-volatile memory.
In English-language literature, ROM is called Read Only Memory, ROM(read-only memory). Information in ROM is written at the factory of the memory chip manufacturer, and its value cannot be changed in the future. ROM stores information that is independent of the operating system.
The ROM contains:
Program for controlling the operation of the processor itself
Programs for controlling the display, keyboard, printer, external memory
Programs for starting and stopping the computer (BIOS – Base Input / Outout Sysytem)
Device testing programs that check the correct operation of its units every time you turn on the computer (POST -Power On SelfTest)
Information about where on the disk it is located operating system.
CMOS - non-volatile memory
CMOS RAM is non-volatile computer memory. This write-multiple write chip has a high cell density (each cell is 1 byte in size) and low power consumption - it has plenty of power batteries computer. Received its name from the technology of creation based on complementary metal-oxide semiconductors ( complementary metal-oxide semiconductor- CMOS). CMOS RAM is a database for storing PC configuration information. The Setup BIOS computer startup program is used to set and store configuration settings in CMOS RAM. Each time the system boots, the parameters stored in the CMOS RAM chip are read to determine its configuration. Moreover, since some computer startup parameters can be changed, all these variations are stored in CMOS. The BIOS SETUP installation program, when writing, saves its system information in it, which it subsequently reads (when the PC boots). Despite the obvious connection between the BIOS and CMOS RAM, they are completely different components.
Key words of this lecture
controllers, chipset, ports, USB, COM, LPT, BIOS POST, CMOS, Boot, I/O devices,
(controller- regulator, control device) - a device for controlling various computer devices.
Chipset(chipset)
A set of chips designed to work together to perform a set of functions. Thus, in computers, the chipset located on the motherboard acts as a connecting component that ensures the joint functioning of the memory subsystems, central processing unit (CPU), input-output and others. Motherboard (motherboard, MB, also used name mainboard- main board; slang. Mother, mother, motherboard) is a complex multilayer printed circuit board, on which the main components of a personal computer are installed (central processor, RAM controller and RAM itself, boot ROM, controllers of basic input-output interfaces), chipset, connectors (slots) for connecting additional controllers using USB, PCI and PCI-Express buses.
North Bridge(Northbridge; on selected Intel chipsets, Memory Controller Hub, MCH) - chipset system controller on the motherboard x86 platform, to which the following are connected as part of the organization of interaction:
via Front Side Bus - microprocessor,
via the memory controller bus - RAM,
via the graphics controller bus - video adapter,
connected via internal bus south bridge.
South Bridge(Southbridge; functional controller; I/O Controller Hub, ICH). Usually this one chip on the motherboard, which through the Northbridge connects “slow” (compared to the CPU-RAM connection) interactions with the central processor (for example, bus connectors for connecting peripheral devices).
AGP(from the English Accelerated Graphics Port, accelerated graphics port) - developed in 1997 by Intel, a specialized 32-bit system bus for a video card.
PCI(English: Peripheral component interconnect, literally - interconnection of peripheral components) - an input/output bus for connecting peripheral devices to the computer motherboard.
Ultra DMA(Direct memory access, Direct memory access). Different versions of ATA are known under the synonyms IDE, EIDE, UDMA, ATAPI; ATA (English: Advanced Technology Attachment) is a parallel interface for connecting storage devices (hard drives and optical drives) to a computer. In the 1990s it was standard on the IBM PC platform; is currently being replaced by its successor - SATA and with its advent it received the name PATA (Parallel ATA).
USB(English Universal Serial Bus - “universal serial bus”, pronounced “yu-es-bee” or “oo-es-be”) - a serial data transfer interface for medium- and low-speed peripheral devices in computing. To connect peripheral devices to the USB bus, a four-wire cable is used, with two wires (twisted pair) in a differential connection used to receive and transmit data, and two wires to power the peripheral device. Thanks to the built-in power lines, USB allows you to connect peripheral devices without its own power source (the maximum current consumed by the device via the USB bus power lines should not exceed 500 mA).
LPT-port (standard printer device “LPT1” Line Printer Terminal or Line PrinTer) in operating systems MS-DOS family. IEEE 1284 (printer port, parallel port)
COM-port (“com port” Communication port, Serial port, serial port, serial port) is a bidirectional serial interface designed for exchanging bit information. This port is called serial because information is transmitted through it one bit at a time, bit by bit (unlike a parallel port).
PS/2- connector used to connect a keyboard and mouse. It first appeared in 1987 on IBM PS/2 computers and subsequently gained recognition from other manufacturers and became widespread in personal computers and workgroup servers. a series of personal computers from IBM based on Intel 80286 and Intel 80386 series processors, produced since April 1987. /2 – computer version.
The memory controller is now an integral part of the processor itself. The integrated memory controller has been used in AMD processors for more than six years (before the advent of the Sandy Bridge architecture), so those who were already interested in this issue had time to accumulate a sufficient amount of information. However, for Intel processors, which occupy a much larger market share (and, consequently, for the majority of users), the change in the nature of the memory system operation became relevant only with the release of truly mass-produced processors from the company with an integrated memory controller.
Moving the memory controller directly into modern processors has a significant impact on the overall performance of computer systems. The main factor here is the disappearance of the “intermediary” between the processor and memory in the form of the “north bridge”. Processor performance no longer depends on the chipset used and, as a rule, on the motherboard in general (that is, the latter simply turns into a backplane).
The next generation of RAM, DDR4 SDRAM, brings significant performance improvements to server, desktop and mobile platforms. But achieving new performance milestones requires radical changes in the topology of the memory subsystem. The effective frequency of DDR4 SDRAM modules will be from 2133 to 4266 MHz. Promising memory modules are not only faster, but also more economical than their predecessors. They use a supply voltage reduced to 1.1-1.2 V, and for energy-efficient memory the standard voltage is 1.05 V. DRAM chip manufacturers had to resort to the most advanced manufacturing technologies when making DDR4 SDRAM chips.
A massive transition to the use of DDR4 SDRAM was planned for 2015, but it must be borne in mind that the extremely high speeds of the new generation memory required changes to the usual structure of the entire memory subsystem. The fact is that DDR4 SDRAM controllers can only handle a single module in each channel. This means that the parallel connection of memory modules in each channel will be replaced by a clearly defined point-to-point topology (each installed DDR4 stick will use different channels). To ensure high frequencies, the DDR4 specification only supports one module per memory controller. This means that manufacturers needed to increase the density of memory chips and create more advanced modules. At the same time, timings continued to increase, although access times continued to decrease.
Samsung Electronics has mastered the production of multi-tier 512-Mbit DRAM chips using TSV technology. It is this technology that the company plans to use for the release of DDR4. Thus, it is planned to achieve the release of relatively inexpensive DDR4 memory chips with very high capacity.
Another well-known and already proven method is the use of the so-called “unloading memory” technique - LR-DIMM (Load-Reduce DIMM). The essence of the idea is that the LR-DIMM memory module includes a special chip (or several chips) that buffers all bus signals and allows you to increase the amount of memory supported by the system. True, we should not forget about the only, perhaps, but no less significant drawback of LR-DIMMs: buffering inevitably leads to an additional increase in latency, which for DDR4 memory, by definition, will already be rather large. For the server and high-end computing segment, where a very large amount of memory is in demand, a completely different way out of the situation is proposed. It assumes the use of high-speed switching with special multi-input switch chips.
Intel and Micron have collaborated to create a new type of storage system thatone thousand times faster than the most advanced NAND Flash memory. The new type of memory, called 3D XPoint, boasts read and write speeds up to a thousand times faster than conventional NAND memory, while also boasting high levels of durability and density. CNET news agency reports that the new memory is ten times denser than NAND chips and allows more data to be stored in the same physical area while consuming less power. Intel and Micron say their new type of memory can be used as both system and volatile memory, meaning, in other words, it can be used as a replacement for both RAM and SSDs. Currently, computers can interact with a new type of memory through an interface PCI Express, however, Intel says this type of connection won't unlock the full potential of the new memory's speeds, so XPoint will have to design a new motherboard architecture to get the most out of its memory.
Thanks to new technology 3DXpoint (cross-point) memory cell changes resistance to distinguish between zero and one. Because the Optane memory cell is transistor-free, Optane memory has 10 times the storage density of NAND Flash. Access to an individual cell is provided by a combination of specific voltages on intersecting conductor lines. The abbreviation 3D was introduced because the cells in memory are arranged in several layers.
Already in 2017, the technology was widely used and will be used both in analogues of flash cards and in RAM modules. Thanks to new technology, computer games will receive the most powerful development, because locations and maps that are complex in terms of memory capacity will be loaded instantly. Intel claims a 1000-fold superiority of the new type of memory compared to the usual flash cards and hard drives. Devices under the Optane brand will be produced by Micron using a 20nm process technology. First of all, 2.5-inch SSD solid-state drives will be released, but SSD drives with other standard sizes will also be released; in addition, the company will release Optane DDR4 RAM modules for Intel server platforms.
Publications on the topic
-
Why do you dream about teeth falling out?
Dreams in which people see teeth in various variations are quite common. Therefore, it is important to know why such dreams occur. Psychologists...
-
Taurus Rat - characteristics of men and women Horoscope Taurus Rat woman what awaits
The combination of Taurus and Rat gives excellent results. A person born between April 21 and May 21 is distinguished by amazing calmness and...