Map of France 13th century. Feudal (medieval) France

“XI-XV centuries” The era of the developed Middle Ages marked the beginning of the Crusades - aggressive warriors of European feudal lords in the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean. They lasted 200 years (1096-1270). Their organizer was the Catholic Church, which gave the campaigns the character of religious warriors—the struggle of Christianity against Islam. Naturally, France could not stay away from these events. It was she who organized the first trip. In November 1095, Pope Urban II convened a church council in Clermont, where he made a speech calling for people to take up arms in order to snatch the Holy Sepulcher from the hands of infidels. All participants in the campaign were promised complete forgiveness of sins, and those who died were promised paradise. He also pointed out the earthly benefits awaiting the crusaders in the east. After this, the war was preached in all the churches of Europe. In 1096, tens of thousands of poor people went on pilgrimage. But their campaigns were unsuccessful. In October 1096, after numerous robberies, robberies, and violence, the pilgrims were completely defeated by the Muslims. In the summer of the same year, the knights, who were well armed and stocked up on supplies and money, moved to the east, selling and mortgaging their possessions in favor of the church. The feudal lords of Lorraine, Toulouse, Normandy, Blois and Flanders went on campaigns earlier than others. Although the army did not represent a single whole, the campaigns were successful. As a result, several principalities belonging to the French nobility were founded. In the summer of 1099, after the capture of Jerusalem, these principalities actually began to belong to France. With the final establishment of feudalism, the fragmentation that reigned in France acquired certain features in various parts of the country.

In the north, where feudal relations of production were most fully developed, fragmentation reached its conclusion and the feudal hierarchy was most complex. The king was a lord only for his immediate vassals: dukes, counts, as well as barons and knights of his domain. The norm of feudal law was in force: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.” There are many allods left in the south, both large and small, that is, peasant ones. Free communities have long been protected in the mountainous regions of the Massif Central. The early development of cities also contributed to the weakening of feudal relations. As a result, the feudal hierarchy did not acquire a smoky character in the south. There were local dynasties there, and often little was even known about the Capetians. The Dukes of Aquitaine were titled “Dukes of the entire Aquitaine monarchy and considered themselves equal to the kings in everything. The large feudal estates of the south were more connected in the 11th-12th centuries. with other countries. The feudal fragmentation of France was further aggravated by significant differences in the socio-economic and political development of the northern and southern parts of the country, as well as the presence on its territory of two nationalities - northern French and southern French (Provencal). As in an earlier period, these peoples spoke local dialects of various languages: in the south of France - Provencal, in the north - Northern French. According to the different pronunciation of the word “yes” in these languages ​​(“os” - in Provençal, “oil” - in Northern French) later, in the XIII - XIV centuries. The northern regions of France were called “Languedoille” (langue - “language” in French), and the southern ones - “Languedoc”.

In the 13th century. the whole country was already covered with many cities - large, medium and small. Crafts and trade in them initially coexisted with agriculture, but soon pushed it into the background. There were some differences between the cities of Southern and Northern France from the very beginning. The heyday of southern cities - Bordeaux, Toulouse, etc. - began in the 11th century. And it especially intensified in the 12th century. The Crusades played a big role in their development. These cities traded with each other and played the role of intermediaries in trade with the countries of continental Europe. All oriental, Italian and Spanish goods entered the country through the Mediterranean ports of France. Trade contributed to the rapid growth of crafts in many southern cities. Throughout the 12th century. in almost all southern cities a so-called consulate was established, i.e. the board of consuls - elected officials from nobles, merchants and artisans, along with whom there were Great Councils, consisting of all full-fledged citizens. Southern cities became virtually independent republics, much like Italian cities. The nobles also lived and traded in them. The power of large feudal lords was weakened by the independence of large cities. The cities of the North suffered a more difficult fate. The most significant of them - Noyon, Reims, and others - flourished in the north-east of France, in areas of developed sheep breeding, where cloth making became the main industry. Rich craftsmen and merchants appeared there, but their economic activities encountered many obstacles on their way, because... the cities were at the mercy of lords, mainly bishops, who robbed the townspeople, often resorting to violence. The townspeople had no rights, their property was under threat of appropriation by the feudal lords. In the 11th century, cities were repeatedly bought off from the claims of feudal lords. Usually they organized a secret conspiracy (communio) and with weapons in their hands, the townspeople attacked the lord and his knights, killing or expelling them. If successful, the feudal lords were forced to grant the city self-government.

The first "commune" was Cambrai in 1077, which received a communal charter. As a result of the establishment of the commune, the city received the rights of self-government, court and taxation. Kings often supported the communes in their fight against the lords, because the liberated cities recognized the authority of the king. But there were no communes on the territory of the royal domain. The conquest of political independence led to the rapid growth of cities. Crafts flourished and the division of labor between workshops grew. The growth of cities has accelerated the socio-economic differentiation of the urban population. Merchants and craftsmen of some workshops (butchers, cloth makers, jewelers, etc.) became rich; in the communes they completely seized power, neglecting the interests of artisans and small traders. A fierce internal struggle began in the cities. Taking advantage of this, the kings interfered in the internal affairs of the communes, and from the beginning of the 14th century they began to gradually deprive them of their former privileges. In the 12th century, the process of state centralization began in France. Initially, it unfolds in the North, where economic and social prerequisites existed for it. Centralization policy was a progressive phenomenon. The royal power fought against feudal anarchy, which undermined the country's productive forces. The opponents of this policy were the large feudal lords, who most valued their political independence and the associated power over the population. The feudal lords were supported by part of the higher clergy. The strengthening of royal power was facilitated by continuous hostility between the feudal lords. The beginning of the 12th century is a turning point in the growth of royal power. Louis VI (1108-1137) and his chancellor Suger put an end to the resistance of the feudal lords in the royal domain. The castles of the feudal lords were destroyed or occupied by royal garrisons. But in the middle of the 12th century. The French kings had very strong rivals in France. In 1154, one of the French feudal lords, Count of Apjouy Henry Plantagenet, became king of England. His possessions in France were several times greater than the domain of the French king. The rivalry between the Capetians and the Plaptagenets especially flared up under Philip II Augustus (1180-1223). More than all his predecessors, he understood the great benefit that the royal power of the city could provide, and sought to cement his alliance with them. This is evidenced by the numerous communal charters that he gave to a number of cities. Thanks to the military successes of Philip II, the French king's domain increased approximately fourfold. The importance of royal power also increased greatly in those parts of France that had not yet become part of the domain. The flourishing economic condition of southern French cities and their political independence led to increased social contradictions and intense ideological struggle in them. This was manifested in the spread in the southern regions of heretical teachings that had an anti-feudal orientation. In the middle of the 12th century. they began to be called by the common name “Albigensians” (after the main center of the heresy - the city of Albi). The Albigensians considered the earthly world in the Catholic Church itself to be the creation of the devil, denied the basic dogmas of the church, and demanded the elimination of the church hierarchy, church land ownership and tithes. Under a religious veneer, the struggle against the feudal lords unfolded.

The bulk of the Albigensians were townspeople, but they were also joined, especially at the beginning of the movement, by knights and nobles who encroached on the land wealth of the church. In 1209, Pope Innocent III managed to organize against the Albigenses “ crusade” of northern French bishops and their vassals under the leadership of the papal legate. The northern French knights willingly took part in the campaign, hoping to profit from the rich southern cities. During the 13th century, especially during the reign of Louis IX (1226-1270), the strengthening of royal power was consolidated by a number of important reforms. As a result of the reform, judicial duels were prohibited on the territory of the royal domain. The decision of any feudal court could be appealed to the royal court, which thus became the supreme authority for judicial matters of the entire kingdom. A number of the most important criminal cases were removed from the jurisdiction of feudal courts and were considered exclusively by the royal court. A special judicial chamber emerged from the Royal Council, called the “parliament”. Louis IX prohibited wars between feudal lords in the royal domain, and in the domains not yet annexed to the domain he legalized the custom of the “40 days of the king,” i.e. the period during which the person receiving the challenge could appeal to the king. This weakened feudal strife. The royal coin was to be accepted throughout the country along with the local one. This contributed to the economic cohesion of France. Gradually, the royal coin began to displace the local coin from circulation.

Thus, development feudal state in France in the XI-XIII centuries. went through a number of stages. Feudal fragmentation was first overcome in the northern part of the country on the basis of urban development and strengthening economic ties between regions. In the first third of the 14th century. The French economy continued to develop rapidly. The most important changes took place in the cities. The structure of the workshop changed, and especially rich workshops subordinated the workshops of related professions. Inside the workshops, the masters paid the apprentices so poorly that they now did not have the opportunity to open their own workshops and become masters. Masters increased the number of apprentices and apprentices and lengthened the working day. The number of urban uprisings increased sharply. Cash rent finally turned the French feudal lords away from running their own households. The developed commodity-money relations made it possible to buy for money everything that was within one's pocket. However, as the country's economy further developed, the needs of the lords increased; medium and small knights experienced an increasingly urgent need for money. Money came from the peasants in an unchanged amount, in accordance with the “eternal” established at one time (often back in the 13th century), i.e. unchanged, qualification. French chivalry sought a way out of difficulties through war and robbery, and sometimes supported the separatist tendencies of large feudal lords. But numerous wars required significant funds, so taxes were increased. The king demanded especially large subsidies from cities. Since the time of Philip IV, the kings began to gradually deprive cities of their rights in the field of self-government and taxation, increasingly subjugating them politically. Philip IV began to impose taxes on church lands. This caused a protest from Pana Boniface VIII. An open conflict broke out between the king and the pope in 1296. Soon the conflict acquired wider significance, as Boniface VIII made claims to the supremacy of spiritual power over secular power. Like Gregory VII, he argued that popes were placed above kings and emperors. But by that time the royal power in France had already strengthened enough to withstand the fight against papal claims and defend the sovereignty of the secular state. In order to influence public opinion, the royal legists organized a skillful campaign against the pope, and extensive anti-papal journalism arose. To gain widespread support, Philip IV convened the Estates General in 1302, where three classes (states) were represented - the clergy, nobles and townspeople. The nobility and townspeople supported the king in everything: the clergy took an uncertain position on the issue of the pope's claims. Boniface VIII sent his legate to France, who was instructed to proclaim the excommunication of Philip IV if the latter did not submit to the pope's demands, but the legate was arrested. In turn, Philip IV decided to achieve the deposition of the pope and, for this purpose, sent agents to Italy who spared no expense and attracted many of the pope's influential enemies to their side. The conspirators broke into the papal palace (in the small town of Anagni) and began to insult the pope in every possible way. Broken by this shock, Boniface VIII soon died.

In 1305, under pressure from Philip IV, a French prelate under the name of Clement V was elected pope. Royal power won a decisive victory over the papacy; its political and international importance in Europe was greatly undermined. In the 30s of the XIV century. the normal development of France was interrupted by the Hundred Years' War with England (1337-1453), which led to the massive destruction of productive forces, population decline and a reduction in production and trade. The French people were beset by severe misfortunes - the long occupation of France by the British, the ruin and devastation of many territories, terrible tax oppression, robbery and civil strife between French feudal lords. The Hundred Years' War was mainly a struggle over the southwestern French lands, which were under the rule of the English kings. In the first years of the war, rivalry over Flanders, where the interests of both countries collided, was also of considerable importance. Subsequently, the main arena of military action became (along with Normandy) the South-West, i.e., the territory of the former Aquitaine, where England, which sought to recapture these lands, found allies in the face of the still dependent feudal lords and cities. The immediate cause of the war was the dynastic claims of the English king Edward III, grandson of Philip IV the Fair. In 1328, the last of the sons of Philip IV died; Edward III declared his rights to the French crown, but in France the senior representative of the side branch of the Capetians, Philip VI of Valois (1328-1350), was elected king. Edward III decided to seek his rights with weapons.

The war began in 1337. The invading English army had a number of advantages over the French: it was small, well organized, detachments of mercenary knights were under the command of captains who were directly subordinate to the commander-in-chief; English archers, recruited mainly from free peasants, were masters of their craft and played an important role in battles, supporting the actions of the knightly cavalry. In the French army, which consisted primarily of knightly militia, there were few shooters, and the knights did not want to take them into account and coordinate their actions. The army disintegrated into separate detachments of large feudal lords; in reality, the king commanded only his own, albeit the largest, detachment, that is, only part of the army. The English won by sea (in 1340 at Sluys, off the coast of Flanders) and by land (in 1346 at Crecy, in the north of Picardy), which allowed them to take Calais in 1347 - an important military and transshipment point for wool exported from England . Otherwise, the British military actions in the north were unsuccessful. Then they moved them to the southwest and again captured the regions of Guyep and Gascony from the sea. It was a difficult time for France, the treasury was completely empty, there was virtually no army. Further waging the war, the peaks, including the king, were ransomed, demanding huge amounts of money. The defeat at Poitiers angered the people against the nobles and the king, who failed to organize the defense of the country from the enemy. Unrest began in Paris. The head of the Parisian municipality, merchant foreman Etienne Marcel, became the head of the Parisians. Etienne Marcel and his closest supporters were among the richest merchants and owned large fortunes at that time. They shared the indignation that swept the whole country with the nobles and the government, but were not going to sacrifice their income in order to ease the tax burden of the urban population and peasantry and therefore did not have real support among the masses of Paris. At the end of May 1358, the largest peasant uprising in the history of France and one of the largest in the history of Europe, the Jacquerie, broke out. It was prepared by the entire course of socio-economic development of Northern France. In 1348, a plague epidemic (“Black Death”) struck France, killing thousands of inhabitants. The population decline led to an increase in wages, which, in turn, caused the publication of laws directed against its growth. On May 28, in the region of Bovezy (north of Paris), peasants in a skirmish with a noble detachment killed several knights, which served as a signal for an uprising. With extraordinary speed, the uprising spread to many areas of Northern France. This is where the later name “Jacquerie” came from.

Contemporaries called the uprising “a war of non-nobles against nobles,” and this name well reveals the essence of the movement. From the very beginning, the uprising took on a radical character: the Jacques destroyed noble castles, destroyed lists of feudal duties, killed feudal lords, trying to “eradicate the nobles of the whole world and become masters themselves.” The total number of rebels in all regions, according to contemporaries, reached approximately 100 thousand. Some cities openly went over to the side of the peasants: in others, the rebels enjoyed the sympathy of the urban lower classes. The uprising took on its greatest scope in Bovezi. At the head of the united detachments of peasants was Guillaume Cal, an experienced man and familiar with military affairs. The rebels also had banners with the royal coat of arms. The peasants opposed the feudal lords, but for the “good king.” On June 8, near the village of Mello, the peasants met the army of Charles the Evil, King of Navarre, who was hurrying with his Varrian and English knights to Paris, hoping to seize the French throne. Peasants and knightly detachments stood against each other for two days in full combat readiness. But since the numerical superiority was on the side of the Jacobs, Karl the Evil proposed a truce and expressed his readiness to cooperate with the peasants. Believing the king’s chivalrous word, Kal came to him for negotiations, but was treacherously captured. After this, the knights rushed at the leaderless peasants and brutally defeated them. Guillaume Cal and his comrades were sold to a painful execution. This ended the uprising in Boveei. After the suppression of the uprising, the nobility brutally dealt with the peasants: executions, fines and indemnities fell on villages and villages. However, despite the victory, the feudal lords for a long time could not forget the panic that gripped them during the uprising, and were afraid to increase feudal payments. The Jacquerie contributed to the further development of the beginning of the decomposition of feudal relations. The growth of commodity production, the strengthening of the independence of the peasant economy and its connections with the market, the development of cash rent - these processes in the French countryside accelerated and deepened even more after the Jacquerie. The peasants were unable to crush the feudal system and were defeated, but their selfless struggle to a certain extent stopped the attempts of the lords to increase feudal exploitation and defended the possibility of further development of the personal freedom of the peasant and his economy. From the turbulent events of 1356-1358. royalty has learned some lessons. A number of tax reforms were introduced. In response to this, numerous popular uprisings broke out throughout France. During the reign of the mentally ill Charles VI Feudal (1380-1422), fierce strife began. Taking advantage of the temporary weakening of central power, the princes of the royal house sought complete independence in their apanages, and the southern feudal lords longed to maintain their independence. Both parties exterminated each other and mercilessly robbed the treasury and people, causing enormous damage to the economy and population of the country. In 1415, a new English invasion of France began. France was left without an army and without money. Compared to the 14th century. the situation was even worse, since civil strife not only terribly ruined the country, but also led to the split of its territory.

As a result of military successes, the British imposed the most difficult peace conditions on France (Treaty of Troyes in 1420), it lost its independence and became part of the united Anglo-French kingdom. During the life of Charles VI, the English king Henry V became the ruler of France, and then the throne was supposed to pass to the son of the English king and the French princess. The north of France was occupied by the British, but the size of the royal lands was not inferior to the territory occupied by the British. The king had many large cities that provided him with invaluable assistance in money and people during the war. The most important factor that ensured the final victory of France was popular resistance to the invaders. The guerrilla war of the population of the occupied territory began almost from the beginning of the British invasion (1415) and flared up more and more. Elusive partisan detachments, who found help and support from the residents (although this threatened with cruel executions), undermined the rule of the British. The latter no longer risked moving except in numerous and well-armed detachments. Sometimes they did not even dare to leave their fortresses. Many of the cities occupied by the English were in secret relations with the king. Conspiracies were uncovered in Paris and Rouen. The British tried to find a way out by further advancing south. For this purpose, the siege of Orleans, which was directly adjacent to English territory, was undertaken. In 1428, a small army, consisting of troops who arrived from England and gathered from the Norman garrisons, arrived near Orleans and began to build siege fortifications around it. The news of this horrified the French. Having taken this first-class fortress for those times and crossed the Loire, the British would not have encountered well-fortified cities further along the road. If troops from Bordeaux had moved towards them from the southwest, the royal army, squeezed on both sides, would have found itself in a hopeless position. During this extremely difficult and dangerous time for France, the fight against foreign invaders was led by Joan of Arc, who managed to achieve a decisive turning point in the war. In the 30s of the 15th century, in connection with the victories of the French army, the process of strengthening the central royal power, which at that time was at the time an exponent of national unity and state sovereignty. In 1481, Provence with the largest Mediterranean port of Marseille, which played a large role in the trade of French merchants with the Levant, Italy, Spain and the northern coast of Africa, was annexed to France. As a result, by the end of the reign of Louis XI, the unification of the country into a single state with a strong central government was largely completed.

After the death of Louis XI (in 1491), as a result of the marriage of Charles VIII and Anne of Brittany, Brittany was annexed to France (but it finally became part of France in the next century). Outside French borders at the end of the 15th century. That left Lorraine, Franche-Comté, Roussillon and Savoy, the annexation of which lasted until the middle of the 19th century. The process of merging the two nationalities has made significant progress, although it is still far from complete. In the XIV-XV centuries. in Northern France, a single language developed on the basis of the Parisian dialect, which then developed into the modern common French language; however, local dialects of the Provençal language continued to exist in the south.

Yet France entered the 16th century as the largest centralized state in Western Europe, with developing economic ties, wealthy cities, and a growing cultural community. Chapter 3 Late Middle Ages. By the beginning of the 16th century. France had almost completed its territorial unification and was a united and strong state. The now few large feudal lords were forced to enter the service of the powerful king and became part of the court nobility. Far from Paris, in the south of France, the nobles, however, tried to behave quite independently. Their local feuds sometimes took on the character of feudal strife; They even tried, according to the old feudal custom, to “move away” from their sovereign and go into the service of another, for example, the emperor. But the French kings were already strong enough to punish disobedient vassals and “explain” to them the concept of high treason, which was unusual for them. The difficult and slow path of the unification of France was also reminiscent of the existence in a number of outlying provinces of local estate institutions - provincial states, which had the right to negotiate with the government on the amount of tax that fell on a given province and distribute taxes among payers (Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, Burgundy , Brittany, Normandy).

France was the largest centralized state in Europe in terms of territory and population (15 million). But unlike England, for which the 16th century was the beginning of rapid and successful capitalist development, France developed economically much more slowly, and accordingly there were no radical changes in its social structure. Agriculture was the basis of the country's economy. The absolute majority of its population lived in the countryside. The cities were small, their industry was predominantly of a craft nature. Neither the nobility nor the bourgeoisie were yet interested in creating a large economy. The French lords had long ago abandoned their own ploughing, and distributed the land to the peasants to hold for cash rent. But various duties and payments entangled peasant farms in a network of heavy obligations and hampered their development. The process of primitive accumulation also took place in France, but its forms were unique. The increasing marketability of agriculture, the increase in the tax burden, at the expense of which the state waged wars and sought to compensate the nobility for the loss of income from the fixed feudal rent, which fell as a result of the “price revolution,” increased usurious exploitation, etc. accelerated the process of property stratification of the French peasantry. The urban bourgeoisie, the “people of the mantle”, as well as the rich “strong men”, managers of noble estates (regisseurs), general tax farmers of income from large seigneuries - all of them, who grew fat on the robbery of peasants overwhelmed by poverty, crowded out the rural poor, some of whom were ruined, sold her land and went to the cities in search of work. As in all European countries where the process of primitive accumulation took place, vagrancy became the scourge of France. Already in the first half of the 16th century. In France, ordinances were issued against “tramps.” As a system, “bloody legislation” received its design a little later. Vagrant people filled the ranks of unskilled workers for the capitalist manufactories that were emerging in France. Large capitals in France found their application mainly in trade, credit and farming operations, and in manufactories. The discovery of America and the sea route to India was of less importance for France than for Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands and England. Nevertheless, the general revival of trade also affected France. The role of western and northern ports (Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Nantes, Saint-Malo, Dienpas, etc.) has grown. Trade along the Mediterranean Sea with the countries of the East through Marseille was further developed, “Languedoc cities are drawn into trade with Spain and Italy. Great value had overland trade. Lyon, with its fairs, encouraged by the French kings, became one of the centers of European trade and the most important international money market. Major financial transactions were concluded here, external and internal government loans, concluded European states. Capital acquired in trade, through state lending, and through farm-outs began to penetrate into production.

On this basis, capitalist manufactories arise, predominantly of a dispersed and mixed type, mainly in textile production. New industries appeared and rapidly developed, especially the production of luxury goods: silk, velvet, gold and silver brocade, art glass, enamel, and earthenware. Mining and metallurgical enterprises developed, which, due to their military importance, enjoyed special privileges. The development of industry and trade, the territorial unification of the country and politics, national productive forces, contributed to the further development of the domestic market. With the development of capitalist industrial relations, i.e., the strengthening of manufactories, the ancient partnerships of apprentices - companions - increasingly turned into organizations fighting with craftsmen and entrepreneurs for higher wages and a general improvement in working conditions. The government prohibited companions, but they continued to exist illegally and exerted an organizing influence on the performances of apprentices, who essentially turned into hired workers. In the 16th century Major class clashes broke out. Printing, which arose already at the time of the decline of the guild system, required the investment of large capital and therefore developed in the form of a centralized manufacture. However, some old forms of organization and even medieval terminology still continued to exist in this branch of production. The hired workers were called apprentices, and the organizations created to protect their interests were still called companions. In the 16th century Printing workers organized several strikes, demanding better working conditions and higher wages. The increase in the tax burden, the attempts of the nobles to arbitrarily increase the size of feudal duties and payments of peasants, and the oppression of usurious capital exacerbated social contradictions in the countryside. In some seigneuries and districts of France, peasant protests did not stop. However, in the first two thirds of the 16th century. The sources do not indicate uprisings that would cover more or less significant areas and involve large masses of peasants, like peasant uprisings late XVI V. French noble nobility in the 16th century. was divided mainly into two groups, no longer distinguished by their position on one or another step of the feudal-hierarchical ladder, but by their proximity to the king, their position on the steps of the stairs leading to the royal chambers. Members of the reigning dynasty, titled major lords, as well as the lucky ones who were blessed by the royal favor, constituted the highest stratum of the nobility, the court aristocracy. They lived on funds siphoned from their estates, but court life required such large expenses that they constantly had to resort to the mercy of the king. They received pensions, gifts and rewards from him for serving in court positions and in the guard. All of them, through extravagance and generosity, supported the splendor and glory of their class and its head - the King of France. The rest of the nobility lived in the provinces on gradually diminishing incomes - on feudal rent from their peasant holders and through service in the royal army. The nobility as a whole was the main support of French absolutism, which was gradually established in France. In the king, it saw its patron and its protection from peasant and urban uprisings that were ready to break out. A significant layer of the bourgeoisie served in the financial institutions of the monarchy or took charge of collecting taxes. Thus, part of the French bourgeoisie already in the 16th century. became a moneylender for her country, making huge capital from the tax system of the noble state. This circumstance led to another feature that had disastrous consequences for the bourgeoisie: less entrepreneurial spirit compared to the English or Dutch bourgeoisie. In industry, trade and navigation, the French bourgeoisie lagged behind its competitors.

The largest monetary capital remained in the financial unproductive sphere. The socio-economic changes that took place in France in the 16th-18th centuries, and the associated intensification of the class struggle, forced the ruling class to look for a new form of state, more suitable to the conditions of that time. This became the absolute monarchy, which somewhat later took on its most complete form in France. The foundations of the absolute monarchy were laid under the three successors of Louis XI - Charles VIII (1483-1498), Louis XII (1498-1515) and Francis I (1515-1547). The States General ceased to be convened at this time. Instead of them, notables were sometimes convened, that is, small meetings of persons appointed by the king. The king had a large army at his disposal and collected taxes with the help of his apparatus. All management was concentrated in the royal council, but the most important matters were decided in a narrow circle of close advisers, the king. Parliaments, especially the Parisian one, somewhat constrained the power of the king. He registered the king's decrees and financial edicts and had the right to bring to his attention his views on their conformity with the customs of the country or the spirit of previous legislation. This right was called the right of remonstration, and Parliament valued it very much, seeing in it a well-known form of participation in the legislative power. But meetings in the personal presence of the king (lit de justice) made the registration of royal decrees and edicts mandatory. Maintaining a large army and a growing bureaucratic apparatus, distributing pensions to the nobility and nobility required large amounts of money. Expenses were covered in two ways: a constant increase in taxes, etc. robbery within the country, and predatory warriors. Direct taxes from 3 million livres at the end of the 15th century. rose to 9 million livres by the middle of the 16th century. and continued to grow. True, the “flail revolution” went even faster than the increase in taxes, and partly compensated for their increase. Wide expansion was carried out in the international arena. Having barely completed the unification of the country, the French monarchy rushed to seize Italian lands. The impoverished French nobility craved spoils, money and fame. French merchants who traded with the East were not averse to turning Italian harbors into transit points for French eastern trade. Italian campaigns occupy the entire first half of the 16th century (1494-1559).

Having begun with the French campaigns in Italy, they were soon complicated by the struggle and rivalry of France with the Habsburg power and escalated into a clash between these two largest powers in Europe. The second important event of the first half of the 16th century. There was a reform movement that acquired a unique character in France. As royal power turned into absolute power, kings sought to subjugate the church and turn it into their obedient instrument. An important step in this direction was taken by Francis I, who concluded the so-called Bologna Concordat with the pope in 1516. According to this agreement, the king received the right to appoint candidates for the highest church positions with subsequent approval by the pope, but the pope's right to receive annatov was partially restored. The king could not fill vacancies for a long time and take income from church benefits for his own benefit. He could bestow them on his associates. Thanks to this, the income of the Catholic Church - the largest landowner in France - was to a greater extent at the disposal of the king. Appointment to high church positions has evolved into. royal award. Bishops and abbots were appointed primarily by nobles and nobles who were more interested in income than in church duties, leaving the affairs of the flock in charge of the affairs of the flock for a relatively insignificant remuneration to their vicars, i.e. deputies, people usually of humble origins. However, socio-economic changes also occurred in France, which contributed to the spread of reform ideas. One of the moderate French reformers, Lefebvre d'Etaples, even before Luther, expressed ideas close to reformation ones. Lutheran ideas began to spread in France in the early 20s of the 16th century. The first speech of the Sorbonne (theological faculty of the University of Paris) against “heresy” dates back to this time " Several stubborn heretics were burned. The early period of the Reformation in France was characterized by two things: Protestantism spread more or less evenly throughout the country; it spread exclusively among the third estate - the bourgeoisie and artisans. Among the artisans, reformation ideas were adopted mainly by apprentices and craftsmen. hired workers. Those who especially suffered from exploitation: for them, Protestantism was a form of expression of social protest. The guild masters, who were isolated in a closed privileged group, who bought patents from the king for the title of master for a fairly significant sum, basically adhered to the royal faith, i.e. e. Catholicism. As for the peasantry, the majority of them remained alien to the reformation. The government's tolerant attitude towards Protestants ended when adherents of the standard faith switched to more decisive actions in the mid-80s. In October 1534, in connection with the arrests of several Protestants, posters compiled by adherents of the Reformation were posted in Paris and even in the royal palace. This performance was considered unheard of insolence, and Catholic fanatics made a strong protest. The king was forced to take serious measures. On January 13, 1535, 35 Lutherans were burned and about 300 were imprisoned. By this time, a new reformation movement was emerging on French soil, which later became widespread throughout the world - Calvinism. In 1536, the first edition of “Instruction in the Christian Faith” by John Calvin was published. The author of this work was forced to flee abroad due to religious persecution. In the 40s, the second period of the Reformation began in France, associated with the spread of Calvinism among the nobility, merchants and among the lower Catholic clergy, mainly in the south of France. The successes of Calvinism and its militant nature provoked government responses. Under Henry II, the “Fiery Chamber” was established to try heretics, which sentenced many Protestants to be burned at the stake. By the time the campaigns in Italy ended, a great internal ferment was already acutely felt in France, affecting the most diverse segments of the population. The growth of unrest was facilitated not only by the consequences of changes in the socio-economic nature and changes in the political superstructure of the country in connection with the strengthening of absolutism, but also by the insignificance of the successes gained by France in the Italian campaigns.

The ongoing processes of decomposition of feudal relations and the emergence of a capitalist structure in the depths of feudalism inevitably aggravated social contradictions. Naturally, the working people, suffering from the ever-increasing oppression of taxes, could not put up with this situation, and social protest on their part took on increasingly acute forms. One of the forms of protest was a departure from Catholicism, which sanctified the feudal order with its authority, and a conversion to Calvinism, which was becoming increasingly widespread among the urban plebs - apprentices and other poor, hungry cities, and in some places the peasantry. On the other hand, the reaction to the policy of absolutism in the middle similar class began to affect itself. Acute discontent was revealed in the circles of the provincial nobility and nobility, who had not yet given up the dream of returning to the “good old days,” when not only a major lord, but also an ordinary nobleman could behave independently in relation to the king, transfer to the service of another sovereign and fight with other lords, including the king himself. These sentiments also found a response among the court aristocracy, dissatisfied with the growing power of the bureaucracy and the “upstarts” of the “people of the mantle,” always inclined to unconditionally support absolutism.

France in the Middle Ages from the unification of Frankish tribes took shape into a stable and distinctive state that still exists. The state of the Franks was formed on the territory of Gaul, a Roman province that included present-day France, Belgium, and part of Switzerland. During its heyday, its territory spread to almost all of Central and Western Europe.
The unification of the state was carried out by Clovis I, a native of the Merovingian dynasty. Under his rule the Frankish tribes were united. His highest achievement was the defeat of the Visigoths at the Battle of Poitiers in 507. However, after his death, the state was divided into several parts between his sons, which, however, did not prevent the Franks from expanding their possessions at the expense of Provence and Burgundy. In 613-629, Lothar II became the ruler of all the Franks. A century later, the Merovingian dynasty came to naught, power in the state was seized by Charles Martell, who had the highest position in the state after the king. He managed to pacify the uprisings in the state, distribute part of the church lands to his vassals, and increase the defense capability of the state. Under his command, the advance of the Moors who came from Spain was stopped at the Battle of Poitiers, thanks to which the Arab expansion into Western Europe was stopped. Thus, France in the Middle Ages predetermined the path of development of the entire region.

The state reached its greatest prosperity under the reign of Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III in 800. Under his rule, the Frankish state expanded over most of Europe, but it was he who contributed to the development of feudalism in the country, which led to its collapse after his death.

In 987, the Capetian dynasty came to power, which ruled the state until the French Revolution of 1792. In the new millennium, France began to quarrel with Great Britain. For many centuries, the state was continually shaken by internal conflicts; kings often could not safely move around their own possessions. One of the most difficult periods that France experienced in the Middle Ages was the Hundred Years' War, which lasted from the mid-14th century to the mid-15th century. This name was given to a series of military conflicts between England and France, which began with the devastating defeat of the French at the Battle of Agincourt. The name of the national heroine, Joan of Arc, is also associated with this war. Although she herself was betrayed and executed, her example inspired all the French, and soon the rule of the English was overthrown.

France in the Middle Ages

Medieval France- France during the Middle Ages. This period in French history begins in 476. The end of this period in Russian historiography is usually dated to 1640 (the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution), which in France almost corresponds to 1643 - the establishment of an absolute monarchy. There are other dating traditions.

Frankish state

The word "France" comes from the name of the Germanic people of the Franks, some of whom settled in Flanders - the northeastern corner of Gaul - in the 5th century. Initially, the name Francia meant the country between the Seine and the Rhine, the western part of which alone became part of France, while the southwestern corner of the eastern part, together with the neighboring region to the east (along the Main), received the name Franconia, also derived from the name francs

The Franks who moved to Flanders are called Western or Salic Franks. In the second half of the 5th century, their state began to take shape.

The Merovingians (late 5th century - 751) are considered the first royal dynasty in the Frankish state. The dynasty was named after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Merovey. The most famous representative is Clovis I (ruled from 481 to 511, from 486 king of the Franks).

Clovis I began the conquest of Gaul. The population of Gaul is usually called Gallo-Romans, since by this time the Gauls had completely Romanized - they lost their native language, adopted the language of the Romans, their culture, and even began to consider themselves Romans. In 496 Clovis converts to Christianity. The transition to Christianity allowed Clovis to gain influence and power over the Gallo-Roman population. Moreover, now he had powerful support - the clergy. Clovis settled his warriors in small villages throughout Gaul so that they could collect tribute from the local population. This led to the emergence of the feudal class. Communicating with the Gallo-Romans, the Franks gradually became Romanized and switched to the language of the local population.

In the 5th-6th centuries, almost the entire territory of Gaul (present-day France) came under the rule of the Franks. The Franks who remained in Germany (Eastern, or Ripuarian Franks) also came under the rule of the kings from the Merovingian dynasty.

The Merovingian capital was Metz from 561. The last representative of the Merovingians is considered to be Childeric III (ruled from 743 to 751, died in 754). Since 751, the Frankish state was ruled by the Carolingians. Despite being called Roman emperors since 800, the capital of the Carolingians was the city of Aachen.

In one important matter, Louis VII did not listen to Suger, going, against his advice, to the second crusade. In the absence of the king, events occurred that forced him, upon his return, to divorce his wife Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine. She did not hesitate to marry the owner of Normandy and Anjou, Henry Plantagenet, who soon became the king of England. Thus, Louis VII himself refused the opportunity to annex Aquitaine to his possessions and contributed to the formation of a powerful possession in France, which ended up in the hands of England (see history of the territory). In addition to the clergy, the cities also helped the Capetians during the Crusades. At this particular time, a communal movement was taking place in France, i.e. liberation of many cities from the power of feudal lords and their transformation into independent communes. Very often this was the result of a revolt of the townspeople against the lords; There were even real wars between the two. At the same time, townspeople often sought support from the kings and themselves assisted them in their fight against the feudal lords. The kings first took one side or the other, but then began to consciously support the townspeople, granting them charters that confirmed their rights. The kings did not allow the establishment of communes on their lands, but they gave the townspeople many other benefits.

A century after this (1154), the Counts of Anjou (Plantagenets) became kings of England and dukes of Normandy, and the first king from this dynasty, Henry II, thanks to his marriage to the heiress of Aquitaine, Eleanor, acquired the entire southwest of France (see table. II, map VII). The beginning of the “gathering” of F. was laid by Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), who, by the way, acquired Vermandois, part of Artois, Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne and other smaller lands.

In France, even a special social class of the bourgeoisie was formed, in which the kings found active supporters of their anti-feudal policies. However, when royal power strengthened, it began to take away the rights of the communes. Under Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), a participant in the Third Crusade, royal power in France made new progress. Philip took Normandy from the English king (John the Landless) when he, as a vassal of the French king, did not want to appear at the peer court on charges of killing his nephew. Normandy had to be conquered, but Philip successfully completed this task and acquired other English possessions. Under the same king, a crusade took place against the Albigenses and Waldenses of southern France, which ended with its conquest and subjugation to the northern French. Most of the possessions of the Count of Toulouse were then transferred to the son of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII (1223-26), by the knights who conquered them, but were unable to hold on to them.

Finally, Philip II Augustus was also the first organizer of the royal administration, in the form of bailiffs and prevots, who were entrusted with the management of individual regions, subordinate to the royal council and the chamber of accounts in Paris (in the south, seneschals later became royal governors). Royal power in France increased even more under Louis IX the Saint (1226-1270), who was the true embodiment of the knightly ideal of the Middle Ages and greatly raised the moral authority of royal power. Louis IX also managed to increase his possessions by annexing Anjou and Poitou, which he took from the king of England. Its internal governance was especially important. At this time, the study of the Justinian Code spread from Italy to France and the reception of Roman law began.

Thanks to the activities of these kings and their successors, the unification of France was gradually accomplished. With weapons, money, marriage ties, they little by little take over individual possessions, increasing their domains, and at the same time, more and more subjugate vassals to their power, through new institutions.

As a result, the feudal monarchy under the last Capetians turns into an estate monarchy during the next dynasty - the Valois.

France under the Valois dynasty

The accession to the throne in 1328 of the Valois dynasty was marked by the inclusion of its hereditary duchy into the royal domains. In 1349, Dauphiné was annexed, ending the local dynasty. In general, the successes of royal power in France over the century and a half that elapsed from the accession of Philip II Augustus to the throne (1180) until the end of the Capetian dynasty (1328) were very significant: the royal domains expanded greatly (at the same time, many lands fell into the hands of other members of the royal family), while the possessions of the feudal lords and the English king were reduced (see Table II, Map VIII). But under the very first king of the new dynasty, a hundred-year war with the English began, in the first period of which the French king, according to the Treaty of Bretigny in 1360, had to renounce a number of lands in favor of the English (see Table II, Map IX).

In the first third of the 15th century. things went even worse for France; The British captured a vast territory as far as the Loire. The process of gathering France, suspended by this war, resumed under Charles VII (1422-1461), who managed to expel the British. Among the feudal possessions of the descendants of Louis St., Burgundy rose in this era, the territory of which lay with its western part in France (see Table II, Map IX), and its eastern part in Germany. Louis XI (1461-1483) annexed the French part (Duchy of Burgundy) to his possessions. In addition, this king acquired Provence by right of inheritance from the last Count of Anjou (1481), conquered Boulogne (1477) and subjugated Picardy. Under Charles VIII (1483-1498), the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased (1488); the heir to his rights was the wife of Charles VIII, who after his death married Louis XII (1498-1515), which paved the way for the annexation of Brittany. Thus, F. enters the new history almost united, and it remains to expand mainly to the east, at the expense of St. Roman Empire. The first such acquisition (three bishoprics: Metz, Toul and Verdun) was made under Henry II, but was finally approved only a century later. Mostly new acquisitions date back to the reign of the Bourbon dynasties (see Table III, Map X).

Historical maps of France. Table III. X. France in the XVII-XVIII centuries. XI. Napoleonic France. XII. France since 1814

France under the Bourbons

Henry IV

The accession to the throne of France by Henry IV in 1589 was accompanied by the annexation to France of the northern part of the kingdom of Navarre (the southern part had previously been captured by Spain), Béarn, the county of Foix, and others. In 1601, the area between the upper reaches of the Rhone and the lower reaches was taken from Savoy Dreams.

Louis XIII

Louis XIII ascended the throne at the age of 8 after the murder of his father, Henry IV. During Louis's childhood, his mother Maria de' Medici, as regent, retreated from the policies of Henry IV, concluding an alliance with Spain and betrothing the king to Infanta Anna of Austria, daughter of Philip III. New era began, after much hesitation by Louis, only in 1624, when Cardinal Richelieu became minister and soon took control of affairs and unlimited power over the king into his own hands. The Huguenots were pacified and lost La Rochelle. Princes and dukes were gradually deprived of any influence and power locally. The uprisings of the nobility were suppressed. All the castles of the feudal lords (except for the border ones) were razed. After the death of Richelieu (1642), King Louis XIII also died a year later. As a result of Richelieu's activities, an absolute monarchy arose in France.

Capetian 987-1328

987		996		1031		1060		1108		1137		1180		1223		1226
	Hugo Capet		Robert II		Henry I		Philip I		Louis VI		Louis VII		Philip II		Louis VIII

1328		1350		1364		1380		1422		1461		1483		1498
	Philip VI		John II		Charles V		Charles VI		Charles VII		Louis XI		Charles VIII

1498		1515		1547		1559		1560		1574		1589
	Louis XII		Francis I		Henry II		Francis II		Charles IX		Henry III

Bourbons 1589-1792

1589		1610		1643		1715		1774		1792
	Henry IV		Louis XIII		Louis XIV		Louis XV		Louis XVI

1792		1804		1814		1824		1830		1848		1852		1870
	-

From the book Mad Kings. Personal trauma and the fate of nations by Green Vivian

III. Medieval trilogy The Roman emperors we talked about were absolute rulers, their psyche was disturbed and destroyed by the power they had. The kings of medieval England were people of different types, brought up in Christian traditions, their

author

§ 27. Medieval India * Before reading the text of the paragraph, read task 2*. India is located on the Hindustan Peninsula. In the north of the country they rise high mountains The Himalayas, from which two great rivers originate - the Indus and the Ganges. From the west and east Hindustan

From the book History. General history. 10th grade. Basic and advanced levels author Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich

§ 7. Medieval Europe in the XI – XV centuries Economic development. The medieval economy was characterized by low labor productivity. The inability to create significant reserves for future use often led to famine in lean years. The mortality rate was high among

From the book Following the Book Heroes author Brodsky Boris Ionovich

Medieval beauty At the Lily Hotel, Quentin first saw the young Countess Isabella de Croix. The girl’s beauty struck the Scot. Since the author did not describe the medieval beauty, we will try to do it ourselves. Obviously, Isabella was plump, tall and ruddy.

From the book 400 years of deception. Mathematics allows us to look into the past author

4.1. Medieval astronomy Five planets are visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The visible trajectories of their movement pass near the ecliptic - the line of the annual movement of the Sun. The word “planet” itself means “wandering star” in Greek. IN

From the book World History. Volume 4. Recent history by Yeager Oscar

CHAPTER FIVE Germany and France after 1866. North American Civil War and the Kingdom of Mexico. Papal infallibility. Italy, Germany and France from 1866 to 1870 Thanks to the war and its unexpected results, Germany had the opportunity to implement, and

From the book Mathematical Chronology of Biblical Events author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

1. Medieval astronomy Five planets are visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. All planets are located near the ecliptic plane. The word “planet” itself means “wandering star” in Greek. Unlike stars, planets move relatively

From the book Legalized Cruelty: The Truth about Medieval Warfare by McGlynn Sean

VI Medieval savagery? Modern historians spend a lot of time studying the human capacity to commit cruelty. Studies like the infamous Stanford experiment show how quickly people can adapt to violence

From the book Medieval Europe. Touches to the portrait by Absentis Denis

From the book Vienna author Senenko Marina Sergeevna

From the book “Normandy-Niemen” [True history of the legendary air regiment] author Dybov Sergey Vladimirovich

“Fighting France” and Algerian France An attempt to withdraw “Normandy” from the USSR The Battle of Orel is probably one of the most difficult in the battle path of “Normandy”. At this time, the flights came one after another. Up to five or six a day. The number of enemy aircraft shot down grew. On July 5, the Wehrmacht began

From the book Albigensian drama and the fate of France by Madolle Jacques

NORTHERN FRANCE AND SOUTH FRANCE Of course, the language was not the same; undoubtedly, the cultural level was also unequal. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that these were two completely opposite cultures. Speaking, for example, about masterpieces of Romanesque art, we immediately

From the book Great Mysteries of Rus' [History. Ancestral homelands. Ancestors. Shrines] author Asov Alexander Igorevich

Medieval history A little more is known about the medieval history of Surozh, because since that time it has existed “officially”. But here, too, “Veles’s Book” significantly complements the generally accepted picture ancient history of this ancient Slavic principality. At the beginning of III

From the book General History from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. 10th grade. Basic level author Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich

§ 7. Medieval Europe in the XI–XV centuries. Economic developmentThe medieval economy was characterized by low labor productivity. The inability to create significant reserves for future use often led to famine in lean years. The mortality rate was high among

From the book General History. History of the Middle Ages. 6th grade author Abramov Andrey Vyacheslavovich

§ 34. Medieval India India is located on the Hindustan Peninsula. In the north of the country there are high mountains of the Himalayas, from which two great rivers - the Indus and the Ganges - originate. From the west and east, Hindustan is washed by the sea. The only opportunity for foreign troops

From the book Christian Antiquities: An Introduction to Comparative Studies author Belyaev Leonid Andreevich

The first dynasty that reigned in the Frankish kingdom until the middle of the 7th century was Merovingians. Under them, the Franks expanded the borders of their state to the east, subjugating some neighboring Germanic tribes to their power, but the kingdom itself was often divided, and fierce wars were fought between its individual parts.

Medieval France

During this era, in the state of the Franks, interaction and mixing of Roman and Germanic principles of life took place, and the merging of aliens and natives gradually took place into a new Romanesque nation, the future French. On the soil of Gaul, the Frankish kings became heirs to the power and enormous land wealth of the Roman emperors, but due to the system of reward for service by distributing lands, the Merovingians weakened royal power.

The so-called majordomos who became the real rulers of the state. One of these majordomos, Pepin the Short, proclaimed himself king in 752 and thereby laid the foundation for a new dynasty known as the Carolingians (after Pepin's son Charlemagne).

Royal power in France began to emerge from this situation at the beginning of the 12th century. She was helped in her strengthening, on the one hand, by the clergy, on the other - cities who rebelled against their lords. The main task of the Capetians of the 12th and 13th centuries. They aimed at the annexation of more and more new possessions to their region and the elevation of royal power over the feudal world through the creation of new institutions (bailys, provosts, seneschals, royal council, parliament, etc.). In the 13th century. They found very active support for their aspirations in the legists, as the jurists who studied Roman law and put its principles into practice were called. True, at the beginning of the 14th century. in France, an estate-representative institution (the Estates General) arose, which made attempts to firmly limit royal power, but constant discord between the estates represented in the Estates General prevented them from this endeavor, especially since the kings in their fight against feudalism enjoyed sympathy and support the masses.

The political history of France at the end of the Middle Ages was essentially a history of the rise of royal power. In 1328, the Capetian dynasty ended, and the new dynasty ( Valois) English kings began to dispute the throne, as a result of which a war broke out between France and England, which lasted about a hundred years and was accompanied by internal unrest.

Only in the middle of the 15th century. The French managed to liberate their territory from the British, and from that moment the process of strengthening royal power resumed. Estates General in the middle of the 15th century. They themselves signed their own death warrant by agreeing to a permanent tax to support the royal army. In the second half of the 15th century. Louis XI waged a fierce struggle against the feudal world and, together with his two successors (Charles VIII and Louis XII), finally united France. All this prepared the triumph of absolutism in France, which characterizes its new history (especially the 17th and 18th centuries).

The most important chronological dates

Beginning of the conquest of Gaul by the Franks (486). Adoption of Christianity by the Franks (496). Reflection of the Arab invasion (732). The formation and collapse of the monarchy of Charlemagne (768 – 843). Founding of the Duchy of Normandy (911). Transfer of the royal throne to the Capetian dynasty (987). Reconquest of Normandy from the English by the French kings (1214). Conquest of southern France (1229). The first states general (1302). Beginning of the Hundred Years' Anglo-French War (1338). Battle of Crecy (1346). Jacquerie(1358). Battle of Agincourt (1415). Liberation of Orleans