Policy(Greek politikē - art of government)

The activities of government bodies and public administration, reflecting the social system and economic structure of the country.

Issues and events of public and state life.

Certainly directed activities of the state or social groups in various areas: economics, social and national relations, demography, security, etc.

Policy- a general guide for action and decision-making that facilitates the achievement of goals. Policy directs action to achieve a goal or accomplish a task. By establishing directions to be followed, it explains how goals are to be achieved. Politics leaves freedom of action.

Policy(Greek politikē - state or public affairs from the Greek πόλις - state) determines relations with other subjects of political interests (states, corporations, in all spheres of relationships). The basis of the policy is reflected in the constitution or master planning of large organizations with a complex hierarchy and multidisciplinary branched structure. The policies of external and internal relations are interconnected and reflect the fundamentals of self-organization and management.

Polis (Greek πόλις) is the self-organization of an urban community (including adjacent properties), which constituted itself as a political formation, a community, a special form of self-organization of society, typical of Ancient Greece. It was developed and spread through Italy and directly through the Roman Empire. With the growth of states and empires, the politics of relations with vast territories required variability in policy and improvement of the management system.

Politics, as a concept and methodology (method and order of application) formed in policies, where the managerial elite and various classes, crafts, arts and schools, in which the future elite was formed, were concentrated. Therefore, the political formation defined political relations as long-term rights and obligations of the parties, later defined as strategic and implemented through the functions of strategists.

In the modern era, politics has become no longer like management, but rather like manipulation of a complex hierarchy of elites and pseudo-elites, which is subject to multifactorial reflection on multi-level and multidisciplinary signals (stimuli) in real conditions of natural variable factors and actions, including inappropriate actions of subjects of society .

In a narrow sense, politics is a certain part, program or direction of such activity, a set of means (tools) and methods (techniques) for realizing certain interests in order to achieve certain goals (by the subject of the political process) in a certain social environment. Politics also refers to the decision-making process, as well as behavior in public institutions. In self-organizing civil societies, politics can be observed in the interaction between certain groups of people, such as in corporate, academic, and religious institutions.

The scientific study of politics is conducted within the framework of political science.

Alternative definitions

Politics is the struggle of many interests (the art of management, taking into account the interests of all layers of society). The definition is related to the etymology of the Greek. πολιτικός, where πολι (poly) means many, and τικός (ticos) - interest; (literally - “many interests”) [ source not specified 252 days] . Thus, civil servants in cities ancient Greece were called politicos, and citizens who had little interest and participation in the political life of their city were called ιδιοτικός ( idiotikos) ;

Politics is the art of what is acceptable. History points to the manipulation and aggressive policies of many rulers. Politics is a management, a tool, and it must be distinguished from the goals and falsification (imitation nature) of politics;

Politics is an all-encompassing phenomenon of social life, permeating all its forms and including all forms of social activity of people, all types of activities for their organization and management within the framework of production processes;

Politics is the management of resource allocation;

Politics is a sphere of social activity associated with obtaining, maintaining and using power;

Politics is the desire to participate in power or influence the distribution of power, either between states, or within a state between the groups of people that it contains;

Politics is participation in the affairs of the state, the direction of the state, the determination of the forms, tasks, content of the activities of the state;

Policy is the activity of an organization (its behavioral model) to realize its goals (interests), for example: - technical policy;

Politics is any program of action, all types of activities aimed at independent leadership of something or someone. Accordingly, in this meaning we can talk, for example, about the currency policy of a bank, about the school policy of city municipalities, about the family policy of a wife in relation to her husband and children, etc.;

Policy is a set of measures and actions aimed at achieving a predetermined result;

Politics is a form of social consciousness that expresses the corporate interests of the community, and manifests itself in civil society (state) in the form of trends, movements, trade unions and other public organizations and associations of specific interests. The most perfect and organized of them are the parties and the church.

Politics is the art of bringing people together.

Politics is a struggle for the right to set your own rules of the game.

Politics is the art of evil in the name of good (philosophical and ethical definition in a broad sense).

Policy is an enforced, imposed decree of a third party.

Politics is someone's executable strategy to offer rights and freedoms. (a policy such and such may offer rights that are different from those offered by another policy).

Policy - measures and actions taken by a leader in order to implement the idea of ​​​​how everything should be arranged in the environment under his control. For example, the policy of company “A” may change some functions in the equipment it produces in order to increase profits

Basic approaches

Thinkers of the past defined politics in different ways: as the “royal art” of managing all other arts (oratory, military, judicial, etc.) and the ability to “protect all citizens and, if possible, make them better from the worst” (Plato); as knowledge of the right and wise government(Machiavelli); as the leadership of the state apparatus or influence on this leadership (Max Weber), as the struggle of class interests (Karl Marx). Modern political scientists define politics as activities related to public interests, expressed in the behavior of public groups, as well as a set of behavioral models and institutions that regulate social relations and create both power control itself and competition for the possession of power.

In modern political science there are two key approaches to understanding politics - consensus and confrontation.

Consensus understanding

A consensus understanding of politics is based on the possibility of political interaction as cooperation and assumes the gradual elimination of conflicts, which will turn politics into public acts aimed at mutual understanding and joint action to achieve a goal that expresses the highest public good.

Confrontational understanding

The confrontational understanding of politics (Carl Schmitt) proceeds from the fact that political interaction arises as a result of the achievement of a certain intensity of opposites in relations between people. Politics is created by publicly fighting groups of people who are mutually defined in terms of friend/enemy.

level of competence officials and their rational use for the timely and complete solution of tasks set by the highest political leadership of the state;

accuracy of scientific analysis using modern methods for modeling projects of major political decisions, which eliminates or at least reduces the risk of making inadequate decisions by the political leadership of the state.

Political processes and society

The basis of political processes is a set of ideas and methods of their implementation. The policy is of a pronounced temporary nature, that is, it can change due to a change of leaders (managers).

Political parties are an organization of like-minded people with a common vision of the process and ideology of governance. Political ideology is based on a description of the concept of phenomena and mechanisms, processes and management structure. The politicization of governance often demonstrates the juxtaposition of ideologies and manipulations in favor of the goals of shadow governance and lobbying for the interests of third parties outside of governance itself. Political parties may view the implementation of public administration differently. Therefore, state policies are determined by the balance and/or opposition of various ideologies.

Depending on the type (profile, level) of organizations, they are distinguished: state policy, military policy, party policy, technical policy (for production organizations), etc.

Depending on the direction of activity of organizations, they are distinguished: domestic and foreign policy, social policy, etc.

the art of government and society;

a set of social ideas and the purposeful activity determined by them, associated with the formation of relations between states, peoples, nations, social groups

sphere of activity of the state, parties, social movements.

the desire to participate in power or to influence the distribution of power (Max Weber).

Political systems and ideologies

See also: Political system

Today there are 20 known political and ideological systems:

[edit] Famous political thinkers

Related definitions

Political relations- forms of relationship between political subjects - consent, partnership, discussions, conflicts, domination and subordination between participants in political life.

Political power- the ability and ability to impose one's will on another.

Political organizations- a set of state and non-state institutions that express the interests of the individual, group, and society.

Political culture- type of attitude towards political phenomena, revealed in behavior.

Political consciousness- political psychology and political ideology, motives for political participation (ideas, feelings, experiences, values, assessments).

Subjects of politics- individuals, social groups, layers, organizations, masses, society participating in the process of implementing state power.

Politics and its special role in the life of society

Politics is an extremely complex area of ​​human relations. One of its most important tasks is to manage society taking into account the interests of various social subjects. These interests are often mutually exclusive.

The category “politics” became widespread thanks to the work of the same name by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. He viewed politics as a form of communication between families and clans for the sake of a happy, good life. Currently, this term often refers to various types influence and leadership. Thus, they talk about the policies of the president, party, company, editorial office, educational institution, teacher, leader and members of any group.

Policy- is defined as a field of activity related to the distribution and exercise of power within a state and between states in order to achieve the security of society.

In the very in a broad sense politics is interpreted as nothing other than organizing activities life together people in society , as a necessary and useful arrangement in this regard. And political relations - as a system of relations between people that arise and develop precisely in relation to the organization and functioning of state power.

The presence and status of a policy depends on a number of factors. These stable necessary factors, or connections, are laws of politics. Such connections include the following:

dependence of a subject's policy on interest in another subject. Politics is built by those who lack security: in goods, including life and health, in social status, communication, etc.; whoever has greater resources dictates the conditions of political (collective) existence; that is, the one who is less interested dictates;

the dependence of the stability of political relations on the willingness of subjects to sacrifice some private (personal) interests;

the dependence of the joint security of the community on the fairness of the distribution of social positions of political subjects.

Security contains three main elements.

Social security implies maintaining the existence of a subject in a certain status.

Economic security means having access to a means of subsistence.

Spiritual security presupposes the possibility of free choice of ideas, faith, tastes, etc., without infringing on the interests of other people.

Politics as a social phenomenon

traditional when politics is determined through the state and the participation of people in the exercise or opposition of power;

sociological, in which politics is interpreted in the broadest sense as any type of social activity associated with the independent leadership of people, the distribution of goods and resources, conflict resolution, etc.

In the traditional approach politics appears as a special, different from others, state-power sphere of public life and is implemented in it. Hence such specific definitions of politics, interpreting it as:

the sphere of struggle for power and the method of exercising this power;

science and art of public administration;

a method of producing legal social orders and regulations etc.

In a sociological approach politics as a social activity is not necessarily connected with state power, and, therefore, does not form a special sphere public life. It is present everywhere, and any phenomenon or action acquires a political character to the extent that it “affects the organization and mobilization of resources, necessary to achieve the goals of a particular team, community, etc.” That’s why they often say: “Wherever you look, there’s politics.” It is even present in a family when a smart wife controls her husband in such a way that the latter thinks that he is the boss of the house, although in fact he is “under the thumb” of his wife.

Interpretation of the concept of “politics”:

The course on the basis of which decisions are made, measures to complete and formulate tasks.

The art of managing people, all types of independent leadership activities.

The sphere of struggle for the conquest, retention and use of state power.

The art of statecraft.

The emergence of such a phenomenon as “politics” is due to the fact that society is asymmetrical in its structure. The existence of different classes and social groups (professional, demographic, ethnic, etc.) having divergent, or even directly opposite, interests, aspirations, and ideologies inevitably leads to their clash and struggle with each other.

The great ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle formulated the position that “... man by nature is a political being...”, which means that he is, to one degree or another, involved in political life. The only question is how consciously a person becomes the subject and object of politics, and deliberately makes his political choice in certain situations.

Without politics, our life would turn into what the famous English thinker T. Hobbes called “a war of all against all,” when people fight against people, city against city, street against street, house against house, and, finally, man against man. It is precisely this function of self-preservation of society that politics performs.

« Policy" - one of the most common and polysemantic words both in Russian and in many other languages ​​of the world. In everyday life, politics is often called any purposeful activity, be it the activity of the head of a state, a party or a company, or even the relationship of a wife to her husband, subordinate to a specific goal.

However, most people, when using the term “politics,” practically do not think about its true content. Ancient Greek politician Pericles stated:

“Only a few can create politics, but everyone can judge it.”

At the same time, the insidiousness of familiar words lies in the fact that, having become generally known, they often lose their original meaning. Great German philosopher Georg Hegel warned: “. if something becomes publicly known, it means we don’t know exactly what it’s about we're talking about" Touching political terms, the Russian historian V. Klyuchevsky wrote that they have their own history, and we will inevitably fall into anachronism if, meeting them in the historical monuments of distant times, we understand them in the modern sense.” This also applies to the understanding of the term “politics”.

You can comprehend the essence and content of the category “politics” at three levels.

1. On an ordinary level. In this case, the citizen creates the primary, background image of politics, which allows him to adapt to a politically organized community and find ways of relationship with the authorities and the state that are consistent with his own goals. Ordinary consciousness paints a “natural” picture of politics based on individual empirical experience and traditionally established ideas, customs, and stereotypes.
2. At the scientific and theoretical level. Here a form of abstract thinking is formed, with the help of which a person builds in his mind ideas about the external and internal connections of politics on the basis of generalization and systematization not of individual, but of intergroup and universal experience. The specificity of this level consists in a rational-critical understanding of political reality and the creation of a picture of the political world that would describe and explain this phenomenon as a whole.
3. At the level of technological reflection, which serves as a qualitative variety of scientific consciousness, formed to solve a specific political problem and representing science as a special “art”, “craft”, “skill”. This level significantly influences the methods of formation and development of this kind of knowledge, methods of their organization and forms of implementation.

Today, despite the rapid development of scientific political science knowledge, the content of the category “politics” still remains open, subject to changes and additions as new theoretical models emerge. It demonstrates the futility of unambiguous definitions of the phenomenon of politics, the desire to capture its ever-elusive specificity within the boundaries of a once-found logic. The term "politics" is almost always used in more than one sense.

The origin of the term “politics” is interpreted differently by different authors.

Some researchers argue that the name politician comes from the Greek “polis” and its derivatives “politeia” (constitution), “polites” (citizen) and “politicos” (statesman).

Others believe that this concept came from "politike", which meant the science and art of administering government affairs. Still others believe that the word politics itself comes from “politeia,” which denoted the legislative design of the social and state structure. Still others are convinced that the concept of “politics” comes from the Greek words “poli” (many) and “tikos” (interests).

The word “politics” became widespread after the treatise of the ancient Greek thinker Aristotle on the state and the art of government, which was called “Politics,” became known.

In Ancient Greece, the word “politics” meant everything that related to government activities. So, in particular, Plato and Aristotle They considered government management to be politics. Aristotle considered correct those forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) in which the goal of politics is the common good. Plato defined politics as the art of living together, that is, the art of coexistence. This approach is called communication.

Using a directive approach, a classic of political science, Italian thinker Nicollo Machiavelli believed that there is nothing more than “the totality of means that are necessary in order to come to power, stay in power and use it usefully.”

And the German sociologist M.Weber emphasized that politics “means the desire to participate in power or influence the distribution of power, be it between states, be it within a state between the groups of people it contains... Whoever is involved in politics strives for power.”

Based on the functional approach, T. Parsons wrote:

“Politics is a set of ways of organizing certain elements of a total system in accordance with one of its fundamental functions, namely, effective action to achieve common goals.”

And D. Easton understood politics as the power distribution of values ​​within society.

Based on the institutional approach, V. Lenin believed that politics is “the area of ​​relations between classes of society, their relationship to the state as an instrument of the ruling class, a concentrated expression of the economy.”

If we turn to the interpretation of the concept of “politics” in scientific dictionaries, we see that in the Popular Political Dictionary, published in Moscow in 1924, politics is considered as the art of government and as a certain direction of action of the state, parties, and institutions.

S. Ozhegov in the Dictionary of the Russian Language defines politics as the activities of public authorities and public administration, reflecting the social system and economic structure of the country.

Soviet philosophical encyclopedic dictionary considers politics as an activity related to relations between classes, nations and other social groups, the core of which is the problem of conquest, retention and use of state power.

The presented interpretations of politics do not exhaust the diversity of its definition, but taken together they make it possible to reveal the essence of politics as a social phenomenon as follows: “Politics is a sphere of activity associated with relations between classes, nations, and other social groups, with the goal of conquering, organizing and using state power , management of social processes".

Politics can classify for various reasons:

• By area of ​​public life: economic; social; national; scientific and technical; environmental; cultural; military, etc.
• By object of influence: internal and external.
• By subject of policy: party politics; politics of public associations and movements; public policy, etc.
• By activity priority(goals): policy of neutrality; policy of national reconciliation; open door policy; “Great Leap Forward” policy; policy of compromises, etc.

Thus, politics is: participation in the affairs of the state, determining the forms, tasks, content of its activities; activities in the field of relations between classes, nations, parties and states; a set of events or issues of state and public life; characteristics of a course of action aimed at achieving certain goals in relationships between people. In a broad sense, politics is identified with all social reality. In a narrow sense, politics refers to the relations between large social groups of people regarding the implementation of their political interests.

From a functional point of view, the role of politics in any society (from a small group to society as a whole) can be reduced to the following:

1. Expression of powerfully significant interests of all groups and strata of society. Politics gives people the opportunity to satisfy their needs and change their social status.
2. Socialization of personality, formation of a person as an independent, socially active individual. Through politics, a person is able to acquire social qualities; it includes the individual in the complex world of social relations, constructs the individual as an independent socially active being, a subject of politics.
3. Rationalization of emerging contradictions, ensuring civilizational dialogue between citizens and the state. In the course of satisfying the needs and interests of individuals, contradictions are exposed and conflicts arise. The role of politics is to smooth out contradictions.
4. Management and leadership of political and social processes. Political processes taking place in the interests of certain segments of the population or society as a whole involve the use of coercion and social violence.
5. Integration of various social strata of the population, maintaining the integrity of the social system, stability and order.
6. Ensuring the continuity of social development of society as a whole and each person individually. In this case, the political course chosen by society must foresee not only the long-term consequences of the actions taken, but also be constantly verified by practical experience, common sense, and moral standards.
7. Ensuring innovative social development of society and people, expanding the scope of relations between peoples, man and nature.
8. Organizational.
9. Control and distribution.

It is clear that the speech in in this case We are talking only about the most important functions of politics. By the degree of development of these functions one can judge the degree of development of the society itself, its maturity and development of political life.

The structure of policy distinguishes content, form and process (relationships). The content of a policy is expressed in its goals, values, motives and mechanisms for making political decisions, in the problems that it solves. The form of politics is its organizational structure (state, parties, etc.), as well as norms and laws that give it stability, stability and allow it to regulate the political behavior of people. The political process reflects the complex, multi-subjective and conflictual nature of political activity, the manifestation and implementation of relations between various social groups, organizations and individuals. Based on this, considering politics as a social phenomenon, we can highlight the following: structural elements:

• political interest is an internal, conscious source of political behavior;
• political relations - the relationship between social groups and government institutions;
• political consciousness - the dependence of political life on people’s conscious attitude towards their powerfully significant interests;
• political organization - a set of institutions of political power;
• political activity is the social activity of subjects in realizing their political statuses.

Politics has its subjects and objects.

• Subject- is a carrier of any objective-practical activity, a source of activity aimed at an object.
• Object- this is what confronts the subject in his objective-practical activity, in cognition. In other words, the subject acts, influences the object, strives to use it in his own interests.

In relation to politics, we can say that a subject of politics is someone who leads an active political life, participates in the political process: an individual, a social group, public and religious associations, the state or its bodies, international organizations, etc.

The object of politics is what the efforts of the subject of politics are aimed at: power, interests and values, the population as an electorate, the state, the individual, etc.

Policy can be implemented at several levels:

• mega level - international and world politics;
• macro level - highest central political institutions, government bodies, public organizations and associations;
• meso level - governing bodies of regional, republican, regional, district scale;
• micro level - direct political interaction of people, small social groups.

Thus, politics has a comprehensive social character and is relevant to almost every member of society. Political science, as a science, studies politics in all its manifestations, and the study of political science contributes to the formation of a socially active personality.

What is politics? In its most simplified form, it is a special form of activity aimed at managing society, gaining and retaining power, as well as providing guarantees for the safety of citizens. In this regard, politics, in the narrow sense of the word, ends where revolutionary processes begin - the creation of new “rules of the game”, which in turn give rise to new standards of political activity.

Ideology and parties

Moreover, when talking about what politics is, it is necessary to take into account ideological views, party strategies and public interests as structural components of politics. Ideological views are often formed on the basis of established cultural, mental and historical traditions. By their nature, they express the mental interests of various social groups living on the territory of one state, but united by a common understanding of political processes. For example, the structural dichotomy of the German CDU and SPD. Christian Democrats are Catholics, they are liberals and they are right-wing. Social Democrats are Protestants and leftists. Accordingly, various party strategies are formed based on the interests and views of social and professional groups supporting, respectively, the CDU and the SPD.

People and institutions

Describing what politics is, it is necessary to immediately emphasize that any political activity is carried out within the framework of institutions of power, legitimate mechanisms that allow the incorporation of social interests into political ones. This does not mean that one person cannot concentrate all power in his hands (unfortunately, this is often what happens), but in this case the ruler himself becomes. A classic example is the famous expression of Louis XIV: “The State is I.”

Politics comes in different forms and has different dimensions. Political activity is just one of the forms of its manifestation, but it does not reveal the whole essence of the “political”. Take corporate structures, for example. What is politics in an organization or business? We often come across the expression “company policy”, “our policy”, “trade union policy”, etc. After all, in fact, in this case we are not talking about public administration. We are faced with the choice of a certain set of values ​​and “rules of the game.” In fact, we are offered to limit our freedom to general, corporate interests and to act not in our own, but in general interests, which are tacitly recognized as having priority over the interests of the individual.

Conclusions

Thus, when defining politics, we must proceed from three main premises: the relationship between personal and corporate; ideological choice and value set; the goals of politics and the state, as well as their providers - parties and political institutions. As a result, it turns out that politics is an activity (philosophy of activity) aimed at strengthening and developing dominant corporate ties based on certain principles and development strategies of the organization. Moreover, it does not matter what the social nature of the organization itself is. All that matters is its dominant position in relation to the individual.

) were historically formed as urban communities with self-government, which constituted themselves as a political formation, a community - this form of self-organization of society was typical of Ancient Greece. It was developed and spread through Italy and directly through the Roman Empire. With the growth of states and empires, the politics of relationships with vast territories required variability in policy and improvement in the system of governance. Politics as a management methodology was formed in policies, where the managerial elite and various classes (crafts, arts, schools) were concentrated, in which the future elite was formed.

The term itself was introduced in the 4th century BC. e. Aristotle, who proposed the following definition for it: politics is the art of governing the state (polis). However, politics emerged as a separate area of ​​social existence long before this event - although later than, for example, economic relations or morality. There are several different views about the nature and origin of politics:

• Theological. In accordance with this view, politics, as well as life in general, is of divine origin.
• Anthropological. This approach links politics with human nature: it is assumed that the appropriate type of communication and interaction with other people is dictated by the essence of a person (and, on the other hand, itself influences this essence, causing a number of self-limitations and other characteristic features, distinguishing humans from animals).
• Biological. Such an interpretation, on the contrary, implies that the nature of politics should be understood on the basis of principles common to humans and animals - such, for example, as aggressiveness, the instinct of self-preservation, the struggle for survival, etc. Ethologist K. Lorenz, in particular, linked with The phenomenon of aggressiveness is war, revolution and other conflicts that take place in the life of society.
• Psychological. According to this idea, the primary source of political interaction between people is needs, interests, emotions and other manifestations of the human psyche. Politics was interpreted in a traditional way, for example, by S. Freud, who associated the nature of politics with the unconscious.
• Social. The corresponding approach assumes that politics is a product of society and was formed during the evolution of the latter - as its complexity grew and social stratification developed. The Neolithic revolution, which influenced both forms of economic management and the way of life of people in general, can be considered as the starting point of these social changes. The logic behind the appearance of the policy is approximately as follows:
  • The growth in the productivity of human activity leads to the emergence of private property. The latter, in turn, contributes to the development of the economy, its specialization, as well as the formation of new social associations, deepens the autonomy and independence of the individual, providing it with the opportunity to achieve a certain position in society economically, and also strengthens the stratification of society along property lines, giving rise to conflicts.
  • Social differentiation, including along ethnic and religious lines, is becoming more pronounced.
  • Demographic growth and expansion of economic activity actualize the problem of the independence of a particular community from others, as well as the task of maintaining the integrity of the territories under the control of this community.

Accordingly, politics arises in connection with the loss of the opportunity to resolve the above problems and conflict situations using traditional methods - through customs, moral principles, etc. Along with law, politics acts as one of the new regulators designed to solve these problems; in addition, for the same purpose the state is formed as new form structuring and organizing people's lives. Because of this, the concept of politics is directly associated with the concepts of state and power. In the concept of political scientist M. Duverger, three forms of power are distinguished - anonymous, individualized and institutionalized; the first two are defined as pre-state, and the third - as the state itself, having a public character and determining the emergence of politics.

The essence of politics[ | ]

In the course of the development of scientific and philosophical thought, various definitions of politics were proposed: the general “royal art”, which consists in mastering a set of specific ones (oratory, military, judicial, etc.), the ability to “protect all citizens and, if possible, make them better from the worst” (Plato), knowledge of correct and wise government (Machiavelli), leadership of the state apparatus or influence on this leadership (Max Weber), struggle of class interests (Karl Marx). Currently, it is common to interpret politics as an activity that is expressed in the behavior of social groups, as well as a set of behavior patterns that govern social relations and create power control as such, coupled with competition for the possession of power. There is also the idea that in general view politics can be defined as social activity aimed at maintaining or changing the existing order of distribution of power and property in a state-organized society (domestic politics) and the world community (foreign policy, global or world politics).

Politics is a multifaceted social phenomenon that can be considered as an instrument of conscious self-regulation of society. There are a number of definitions of politics proposed by various theoretical directions, which emphasize one of the main aspects of political activity: institutional, legal, economic, psychological, social, anthropological, etc.

Basic approaches[ | ]

In historical retrospect, the basic trends in determining the essence of politics, as well as in the area of ​​its genesis, can be generalized within the framework of a set of different theoretical approaches. These may include the following:

• Substantial. Definitions of politics are linked directly to the concept of power, defining politics either as management with the help of power, or as the desire to acquire and maintain it. Associated with this movement is the understanding of politics presented in the works of Niccolò Machiavelli, Max Weber and Karl Marx.
• Institutional. Definitions in which attention is focused on a certain organization or some community of people performing power functions. As a rule, the state is designated as the key institution (such views were held, in particular, by Vladimir Lenin), but there are other variations that focus on other social institutions.
• Sociological. Within the framework of this approach, society is considered as a set of structurally organized groups that realize their needs and interests through power, and politics, accordingly, as certain forms of activity of such social groups to realize the above-mentioned needs.
• Teleological. Such an understanding of the essence of politics is associated with the concepts of organization, goal setting and goal achievement, due to which the field of action of the term “policy” is significantly expanded.

In addition, in modern political science there are two opposing approaches to understanding politics: consensus and confrontation. The first involves resolving problems using non-violent and non-conflict methods, through cooperation and search Compromises, and politics in it is understood as an activity to achieve agreement between citizens, while within the second approach, politics is considered an area of ​​conflict of interests, an area of ​​confrontation that involves the dominance of stronger subjects or organizations over weaker ones. It is necessary, however, to note that one should not exaggerate the significance and importance of any of these approaches: politics is the product of the struggle of two differently directed tendencies (conflicts of interests on the one hand and the search for balance on the other), which actually equates consensus and confrontational approaches.

Alternative definitions[ | ]

• Politics is the struggle of many interests (the art of management, taking into account the interests of all layers of society). The definition is related to the etymology of the Greek. πολιτικός, where πολι (poly) means many, and τικός (ticos) - interest; (literally - “many interests”) [ ] . Thus, civil servants in the cities of ancient Greece were called politicos, and citizens who had little interest and participation in the political life of their city were called ιδιοτικός ( idiotikos) ;
• Politics is the art of what is acceptable. History points to the manipulation and aggressive policies of many rulers. Politics is a management, a tool, and it must be distinguished from the goals and falsification (imitation nature) of politics;
• Politics is an all-encompassing phenomenon of social life, permeating all its forms and including all forms of social activity of people, all types of activities for their organization and management within the framework of production processes;
• Politics is the management of resource allocation;
• Politics is a sphere of social activity associated with obtaining, maintaining and using power;
• Politics is the desire to participate in power or influence the distribution of power, be it between states, be it within a state between the groups of people that it contains;
• Politics is participation in the affairs of the state, the direction of the state, the determination of the forms, tasks, content of the activities of the state;
• Politics is the activity of an organization (its behavioral model), including the activity of the state to realize its goals (interests), for example: - technical policy;
• Politics is any program of action, all types of activities for independent management of something or someone. Accordingly, in this meaning we can talk, for example, about the currency policy of a bank, about the school policy of city municipalities, about the family policy of a wife in relation to her husband and children, etc.;
• Policy is a set of measures and actions aimed at achieving a predetermined result;
• Politics is a form of social consciousness that expresses the corporate interests of the community and manifests itself in civil society (state) in the form of trends, movements, trade unions and other public organizations and associations of specific interests. The most perfect and organized of them are the parties and the church;
• Politics is the art of bringing people together;
• Politics is a struggle for the right to set your own rules of the game;
• Politics is the art of evil in the name of good (philosophical and ethical definition in a broad sense);
• Politics is the enforced order of a third party;
• Politics is someone's executable strategy to offer rights and freedoms. (Policy such-and-such may offer rights that are different from those offered by another policy);
• Policy - measures and actions taken by a leader in order to implement the idea of ​​​​how everything should be arranged in the environment under his control. For example, the policy of company “A” may change some functions in the equipment it produces in order to increase profits.

Functions [ | ]

In accordance with its purpose, the policy performs a number of fundamental functions:

• Realization of the interests of social groups that are significant from the point of view of power.
• Regulation and ordering of processes and relationships existing in society, as well as the conditions in which labor and production are carried out.
• Ensuring both the continuity of the development of society and the adoption of new models of its evolution (that is, innovation).
• Rationalization of relations between people and mitigation of contradictions in society, search for reasonable solutions to emerging problems.
• Setting goals for the development of society, identifying related management tasks and ways to achieve them.
• The distribution and redistribution of material goods and resources in society through political mechanisms, such as the formation of the state budget.
• Maintaining political communication between various social groups through the media, mediation activities in creating platforms for contacts between the authorities and civil society organizations, representatives of the conflicting parties.
• Guaranteeing the political rights and freedoms of citizens, observing the principles of social equality and justice.

Structure [ | ]

In politics, there are subjects or actors - free and independent participants in the political process (for example, certain communities of people, institutions, organizations, etc.), as well as objects - social phenomena with which subjects purposefully interact in one way or another. As a result of such interaction, political relations arise, which, in turn, are determined by the political interests of the subjects. All of the listed structural elements are influenced by political consciousness(a set of values, ideals, emotions, etc.) and political culture. The summation of these components forms phenomena more high level abstractions: political system, political regime and political processes.

Species [ | ]

Classification of policy types is carried out on several grounds:

• By target area of ​​society:

etc.

• By direction or scale: internal and external.
• By content and nature:

• progressive,
• reactionary,

• scientifically based,
• voluntaristic.

By subject: politics of the world community, state, organization, etc.

Political processes and society[ | ]

The acceleration or, on the contrary, a delay in the development of society.

The basis of political processes is a set of ideas and methods of their implementation. The policy is of a pronounced temporary nature, that is, it can change due to a change of leaders (managers).

Political systems and ideologies[ | ]

Today there are 20 known political and ideological systems:

Famous political figures[ | ]

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Man is a political being. This truth was formulated by the great ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Politics affects the interests of all people.

Political science- one of the youngest humanities disciplines. It took shape in the late 40s. 20th century. It originated within the framework of philosophy. Scientists note the formation of specific political issues only in the 16th century. This is connected with the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli. Political science was influenced by public law (constitutional and administrative). At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the systematic study of politics. Political science- from ancient Greek politics and doctrine. The science of politics. Object political science - the political sphere of public life. This is the sphere of state-organized connections, interactions and relationships.

Politics – from the ancient Greek polis - city-state. Aristotle's treatise “Politics” is what relates to the state, state affairs, the art of government.

Policy definitions.

1. Policy- these are relations between states, classes, social groups, nations that arise regarding the seizure, exercise and retention of political power in society, as well as relations between states in the international arena.
2. Policy- this is an activity government agencies, political parties, public associations in the sphere of relations between social groups (classes, nations, states), aimed at integrating their efforts with the aim of strengthening political power or conquering it.
3. Policy- the sphere of activity of groups, parties, individuals, the state, associated with the implementation of generally significant interests with the help of political power.
4. Policy- participation in state affairs
5. Policy- the art of government
6. Politics – science of public administration.

Political science

Political relations of social subjects regarding state power

Attitudes, interests, goals of social groups and political institutions

Department for the implementation of models of the future society

Influence on the state power of the country's political forces (parties, citizens)

D-st on management of spheres of life of the company.

Types of policies:

By area of ​​society - economic, social, national, scientific, environmental, cultural, military;

By scale - internal and external;

In terms of priorities - neutral, open doors, compromises, national reconciliation;

By subject - state, world community, party, bank, company.

Political science- is the science of state-organized society as a functioning and developing political system based on the interaction of its constituent elements: political subjects, political institutions and political consciousness.

Other sciences are closely related to political science: political philosophy, political history, political sociology, political psychology, political anthropology, political geography, jurisprudence.

A prominent place in the history of political thought of antiquity is occupied by the views Plato(5-4th century BC), set out in the works “State”, “Laws”. He considered the following to be vicious forms of government:

- timocracy - the power of the ambitious;

- oligarchy- domination of the rich few;

- democracy– power of the majority;

- tyranny - the power of a tyrant.

The ideal state according to Plato is the fair rule of the wise. Justice. Hierarchy: rulers - philosophers, warriors - guards, artisans and peasants - physical labor.

Aristotle All forms of government are divided into correct and incorrect. Correct - the goal of the state is in the common good (monarchy, aristocracy, republic). Wrong - the benefit of the ruler, not the people (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy).

IN Ancient Rome contributed to the development of political thought Cicero(1st century BC) in the works “On the State”, “Laws”. Legal equality. Justice. Three forms of government: royal power, the power of optimists (aristocracy), people's power (democracy). The best form is mixed - the strength of the state and the legal equality of its citizens.

Medieval philosophers - power is God's providence. Augustine Aurelius (4th-5th century). Thomas Aquinas(13th century). - supporter of the monarchy. Two types of monarchy: absolute and political. Political is preferable.

During the Renaissance Italian Niccolo Machiavelli(15-16th century). The works “The Prince” and “Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy.” He believed that political behavior was based on profit and power. In politics the end justifies the means.Two way

actions to achieve the goal: the path of law and the path of violence. The sovereign must be able to use both methods. Machiavellianism- politics based on the cult of brute force, disregard for moral standards.

In modern times, philosophers Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Hobbes are the founders of the theory of social contract . Hobbes- in the work “Leviathan or matter, form and power of the state.” There can be three forms of state: monarchy, democracy and aristocracy. Hobbes is a defender of monarchical power.

Locke in Two Treatises on Government. The idea of ​​a right-wing state is subordinate to society.

Montesquieu in the work “On the Spirit of Laws.” Freedom and equality. “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” The theory of separation of powers.(The idea of ​​mixed government was developed by Aristotle and Cicero). For the first time this idea found its embodiment in England during the reign of Cromwell, albeit spontaneously.

Jean Jacques Rousseau and the work “On the Social Contract or Principles of Political Law” introduces the concept of social equality. The principle of popular sovereignty. The principle of republicanism.

The ideas of the French enlighteners were embodied in the Great French Revolution of the 18th century.

German classical philosophy.

Kant(German Phil. 18th century). Works “Towards Eternal Peace”, “Metaphysical Principles of the Doctrine of Law”. Personal autonomy. Man is an end, not a means. Law and order. Politics is the harmony of ends and means.

Hegel(German Phil. 19th century). The work “Philosophy of Law” is an idealistic theory of state and law. The doctrine of free will. The doctrine of civil society and the rule of law. The ideal is a constitutional monarchy.

Thus, the main doctrines of political thought of the Renaissance and the period of bourgeois revolutions:

- theory of popular sovereignty(17-19 centuries) based on the theory of social contract. According to this theory, the people are the source of power and its bearer.

- rule of law theory

- theory of separation of powers.

Representatives of utopian socialism of the 16th-19th centuries.

Ancestor- Thomas More(15-16) in the book “Utopia” (a place that does not exist). Social ownership of the means of production. Collectivism, planned economic management. Labor is the first need, labor education. From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs. Social equality, equality of women. Withering away of the state.

Stages of utopian socialism:

- early (16-18) emergence of capitalism and bourgeois revolutions. Representatives: More (England), Campanella (Italy), Winstanley, Mably, Meslier, Babeuf (France).

The second stage is the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment. Representatives: Saint-Simon, Fourier (France), Owen (England).

Third stage 2nd half of the 19th century. Russian revolutionary democrats: Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Belinsky, Herzen and others. For the revolution, democratic republic, democracy, peasant community.

Marxist concept of politics. Marx and Engels German Phil. 19th century.

Power struggle;

The basis is primary, and the superstructure is secondary;

The state is a product of class contradictions and serves the interests of the economically dominant class. State violence.

Ideologically dominant class

Social existence determines consciousness

Politics is subordinate to economics, but also influences it.

Political thought of Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Decembrists. Equality. Civil society. Right of the person. Republic.

Chaadaev."Philosophical Letters". Reasons for Russia's backwardness from European countries.

Westerners and Slavophiles. 30-40s of the 19th century.

Slavophiles. Kireevsky, Khomyakov, Aksakov, Samarin. Identity of Russia. Preservation of autocracy.

Westerners. Belinsky, Granovsky, Herzen, Ogarev, Botkin. Russia is following the Western path.

Herzen.50-60. The idea of ​​"Russian socialism". Through the rural community.

Chernyshevsky. People's Peasant Revolution.. Populism.

Anarchist-rebellious direction. Bakunin. Denial of any state.

Neo-Slavophilism. Religious philosophy. Soloviev. Berdyaev. Milyukov.

Modern political teachings of the West.

Gumplowicz. 19th century“Sociology and Politics”, “Fundamentals of Sociology”, “Struggle of Races”. Representative of social Darwinism. The theory of conquest.

Spencer. 19th century. positivist direction. "Foundations of Sociology". Society is evolving. Social conditioning of power.

Pareto and Mosca 19th-20th century. Italian scientists. Elite theory. Mosca in his work “Elements of Political Science” - power should always be in the hands of the minority, the elite. Pareto "Treatise on General Sociology". The elite and the counter-elite are fighting among themselves.

Ostrogorsky and Michels to the 19th-20th centuries. The theory of oligarchization (bureaucratization) of political parties.

Weber.19-20 century, German sociologist. Theory of democracy. Bureaucracy.

American scientists of the 20th century. Lasswell, Dahl, Toffler, Italian Bobbio, fr. Crozier. Issues of power in the conditions of transition to a post-industrial society.