Centers for collecting Russian lands. Empire

§ 3. Gathering forces Relying on the increased capabilities of the principality, not shying away from means and tricks, the Moscow princes entered into the struggle for the grand-ducal table in Vladimir. The first challenge was made by Yuri Danilovich. His Tver relative, cousin Mikhail Yaroslavich, received

The Moscow principality became independent under the son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel, in 1276. At that time, no one could yet imagine that it could become the center of gathering Russian lands. More realistic contenders were Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod. However, already during the reign of Ivan Kalita, the role and importance of the young principality grew immeasurably.

The main reasons for the rise of Moscow steel: its relative distance from the Horde; the skillful policy of the Moscow princes; transfer of the right to collect tribute to Moscow; patronage of the Horde khans; the intersection of trade routes in North-Eastern Rus', etc. However, there were two main prerequisites: the transformation of Moscow into the center of the struggle for liberation from Horde rule; transfer of the Russian center to Moscow under Ivan Kalita Orthodox Church.

There are several main stages of collecting Moscow of Russian lands. On the first(from the formation of the Moscow Principality to the reign of Ivan Kalita and his sons Semyon the Proud and Ivan the Red) the foundations of the economic and political power of the principality were laid. On the second(the reign of Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily I) the military confrontation between Rus' and the Horde begins and proceeds quite successfully. The largest battles of this time were the battles on the river. Vozhe (1378) and on the Kulikovo field (1380). At the same time, the territory of the Moscow State is expanding significantly. The international authority of the Moscow princes is growing (Vasily 1 was married, for example, to the daughter of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas). Third stage(1425-1462) is characterized by a long feudal war between Grand Duke Vasily II and his closest relatives. The main meaning of this struggle was no longer defending Moscow’s leading position, but the desire to seize power in the growing Moscow state, which was gaining strength and weight. The transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church into the world center of Orthodoxy after the fall of Byzantium (1453) was of great importance. The final stage began the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533), when the main Russian lands united under the rule of Moscow. A unified set of laws was adopted, unified government bodies, economic orders, etc. were established.

The formation of a unified Moscow state was of great historical significance. It contributed to the liberation of Rus' from Horde rule. The formation of a single political center strengthened the position of the state in the international arena. The processes of forming a single economic space on Russian lands have begun. The national self-awareness of the united Russian people now formed the basis of the spiritual life of the inhabitants of various lands.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was considered one of the possible centers for collecting Russian lands. Mindovg became the first prince of the Lithuanian state, who managed to short term include in the young principality the lands of Lithuania, Zhmudi, Yatvingians, as well as part of the Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Smolensk lands. When creating the Lithuanian state, the state traditions and achievements of the Russian principalities were widely used. The Russian nobility had the same strong positions in Lithuania as the Lithuanians themselves. But their greatest influence on the princely power was achieved under Prince Gediminas (1316-1341), married to a Russian princess. Under him, the Russian nobility formed the basis of the army, led embassies, and governed Lithuanian cities. It is not surprising that in Lithuania many Russian lands then saw a force capable of reviving Russian statehood. The annexation of Russian territories to Lithuania began. Official name it then became the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. The collection of western and southern Russian lands continued under the heirs of Gediminas - Olgerd and Keistut. They managed to stop the German advance into Lithuanian lands and complete the collection of southern and western Russian lands. Lithuania turned into a strong center for the unification of all Russian lands. The inclusion of Russian lands into the Principality of Lithuania did not cause protest among the Russian population, who perceived this as a revival of the Old Russian state. Only attempts to annex Novgorod and Pskov to Lithuania were unsuccessful.

However, after the death of Olgerd, his son Jagiello married the Polish queen Jadwiga and concluded a state-religious union (Union of Krevo) with Poland in 1385. Jagiello converted to Catholicism and converted the entire Lithuanian nobility, and then the population of his country, to the Catholic faith. Lithuanian and Polish lands were transferred to Poland “for eternity.” Vytautas, the son of Keistut, who was killed on the orders of Jagiello, began to fight against the subordination of Poland. He sought to break the Krevo Union and declare himself the King of Lithuania. The joint struggle of Russians, Lithuanians and Poles against the strengthening of German dominance in the region led to the defeat of the Germans during the Battle of Grunwald (1410), which marked the beginning of the decline of the Teutonic Order and its dominance in the Baltic states.

Before the conclusion of the Union of Krevo, the political system of Lithuania was similar to that which existed in Ancient Rus': local princes, who had their own squads, were subordinate to the Grand Duke. In the cities there was a veche government. The Lithuanian prince relied on the advice and support of the family nobility, united in the rada.

After the conclusion of the Krevo Union, the cities were deprived of veche administration, and in rural areas the dependence of the smerds on the owners of the land was introduced. A new class was also formed, which served the prince for land grants - the gentry (nobility). They had the right to convene local gentry diets, at which they resolved issues of local importance. The highest class were the lords (princes), who had huge land holdings and elected Polish kings.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia could become a real center for the unification of Russian lands. However, its merger with Poland and the beginning of Catholicization did not allow the Lithuanian princes to win in the struggle for the unification of Russian lands.

The political unification of Russian lands began in the northeastern principalities and had a number of prerequisites. But the main thing was political factor- the combined efforts of the Russian lands were necessary to overthrow the Horde rule and counter the increasing threats from Lithuania and Livonia. Thus, the predominance of political factors over economic ones was the main feature of the process of formation of a unified Russian state, in contrast to Western Europe.

However economic reasons were also quite significant. The transition in agriculture to a two- or three-field crop rotation system, the development of new types of equipment (plow with an iron share, etc.), the use of new technologies (in particular, the use of organic fertilizers), the development of local land ownership (associated exclusively with the service of princes) - all this created economic prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands into a single state. Great value There was also the growth of cities, the growing importance of which was associated mainly not with their economic power, but with their transformation into strategically important defense points around which forces gathered to overthrow the rule of the khans.

Relative synchronicity of development of Russian lands also made possible a painless unification.

Besides, legal norms Most Russian principalities had a single primary source - “Russian Truth”.

The foundations of culture were also the same various Russian lands, based on all-Russian national identity.

An important prerequisite was the role Russian Orthodox Church, which has always acted from the position of preserving national unity.

Finally, an important prerequisite was the presence of political centers around which the political unification of Russian lands could take place. At various times, such centers were Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, and Lithuania.

Several stages can be traced in the unification of Russian lands into a single state.

The first of them covers almost the entireXIV V. During this period, the rise and gradual strengthening of Moscow took place. The largest events here should be considered the receipt by Ivan Kalita of the label for the great reign and the right to collect tribute for the Horde (1327); The Battle of Kulikovo, during which Dmitry Donskoy, for the first time at the head of a national army, defeated the Horde (1380); transfer by Dmitry Donskoy of the Vladimir grand-ducal throne by inheritance to his son without the khan's consent (1389).

The second period dates back to 1389-1462 gg. and is characterized by a long feudal (sometimes called civil) war between the heirs of Dmitry Donskoy. At this stage, there was still a possibility that the unification processes in Rus' could be led not by Moscow, weakened during the war, but by Novgorod or other centers. However, the role and significance of Moscow. The principalities grew significantly during this period. Even the feudal war itself was fought not so much for the place and role of Moscow, but, taking into account its significance, for power in it. The decisive role in the victory of Vasily II was played by the support of the Horde khans, which he asked for to strengthen his power. No less important was the declaration of the Russian Orthodox Church as autocephalous after the fall of Byzantium in 1453.

Third, final stage associated with the fall of the Horde yoke and the completion of the formation of the territory of a unified Moscow state during the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533). Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Horde (1476); achieved independence from it (1480); annexed, among other territories, those principalities and territories that had recently been considered more possible centers for the unification of Russian lands: Novgorod lands (1478), Tver principality (1485), Pskov (1510), Ryazan (1521). The Moscow princes began to be called “sovereigns of all Rus'” and transfer power in the Russian state by inheritance.

The governing bodies of the unified Russian state were created: Boyar Duma consisted of the clan nobility and was an advisory body under the sovereign; orders were in charge of managing national government affairs by industry ; governors, appointed by the sovereign, carried out his policies locally. Entered uniform measures of weight, length etc.

An important step towards creating a single state was the creation of a single set of laws for the entire country - Sudebnik, adopted in 1497. Article 57 marked the beginning of the formalization of serfdom. She allowed peasants to pass from one owner to another only for two weeks (the week before and the week after St. George's Day - November 26). Peasants were required to pay a special tax - “senior tax” for the right to live on the land of a particular feudal lord.

Was the concept “Moscow is the third Rome” was formulated": Moscow is the capital of the entire Orthodox world. Appeared coat of arms- double-headed eagle.

The importance of creating a unified Russian state was quite significant. It made it possible to overcome the dominance of the Horde khans on Russian lands and ensure their security from other external threats. The formation of a single economic space of the country began. Feudal strife, which placed a heavy burden on the shoulders of the population, ceased. The international prestige and authority of Russia among European states has grown significantly.

Chronology

• 1276 - 1303 Reign of Daniil Alexandrovich. Formation of the Moscow Principality.
• 1325 - 1340 The reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita.
• 1462 - 1505 The reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich.
• 1480 “Standing” on the Ugra River, liberation of Russian lands from the Golden Horde yoke.

The Rise of Moscow

The rulers of the principalities that entered into rivalry with Moscow, not possessing sufficient forces of their own, were forced to seek support in the Horde or Lithuania. Therefore, the struggle of the Moscow princes against them acquired the character of an integral part of the national liberation struggle and received the support of both the influential church and the population interested in the state unification of the country.

Since the late 60s. XIV century A long struggle began between the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) and the creative prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, who entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich, the Golden Horde had entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became increasingly tense. At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the beginning of the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for the campaign against Rus'. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became the most important condition for completing the state-political unification of Rus', begun by Moscow.

In the summer of 1380, having gathered almost all the forces of the Horde, which also included detachments of mercenaries from the Genoese colonies in Crimea and vassal peoples of the Horde North Caucasus and Volga region, Mamai advanced to the southern borders of the Ryazan principality, where he began to wait for the approach of the troops of the Lithuanian prince Jagiello and Oleg Ryazansky. The terrible threat hanging over Russia raised the entire Russian people to fight the invaders. In a short time, regiments and militias from peasants and artisans from almost all Russian lands and principalities gathered in Moscow.

On September 8, 1380 the Battle of Kulikovo took place- one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples

This battle showed the power and strength of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unify the Russian lands. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, the size of the tribute was reduced. The Horde finally recognized the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands. For personal courage in battle and military leadership, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the 14th century. In the Moscow principality, several appanage estates were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, the struggle for the grand-ducal throne began with his son Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy), and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka began. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by his opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark). In fact, this was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. As a result, according to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky “under the noise of appanage princely quarrels and Tatar pogroms, society supported Vasily the Dark.” The completion of the process of unifying the Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state occurred during the reign of

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, the collection of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes took place. Under Ivan III, the Grand Duke rises above the other princes not only in the amount of strength and possessions, but also in the amount of power. It is no coincidence that the new title “sovereign” appears. The double-headed eagle becomes a symbol of the state when, in 1472, Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus. After the annexation of Tver, Ivan III received the honorary title “By the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Rus', Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands.”

The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called districts and were governed by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy a particular position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their services to the Moscow Grand Duke.

A centralized control apparatus began to take shape. The Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichy (boyars and okolnichy are the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars from the middle of the 15th century. Local princes from the annexed lands also sat in the Duma, recognizing the seniority of Moscow. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on “affairs of the land.” With the increase in function public administration there was a need to create special institutions that would lead the military, judicial, financial affairs. Therefore, “tables” were created, controlled by clerks, which later transformed into orders. Order system was a typical manifestation of the feudal organization of government. It was based on the principles of inseparability of judicial and administrative powers. In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the entire state, under Ivan III in 1497 the Code of Laws was compiled.

It was finally overthrown in 1480. This happened after a clash between Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. Chernigov-Seversky lands became part of the Russian state. In 1510, the Pskov land was also included in the state. In 1514, the ancient Russian city of Smolensk became part of the Moscow Grand Duchy. And finally, in 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was largely completed. A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process historical development. From the end of the 15th century. The term “Russia” began to be used.

Socio-economic development in the XIV - XVI centuries.

The general trend in the socio-economic development of the country during this period is intensive growth of feudal land ownership. Its main, dominant form was patrimony, land that belonged to the feudal lord by right of hereditary use. This land could be exchanged and sold, but only to relatives and other owners of estates. The owner of the estate could be a prince, a boyar, or a monastery.

Nobles, Those who left the court of a prince or boyar owned an estate, which they received on the condition of serving on the estate (from the word “estate” the nobles were also called landowners). The service period was established by the contract.

In the 16th century The feudal-serf system is being strengthened. The economic basis of serfdom is feudal ownership of land in its three types: local, patrimonial and state. A new term “peasants” appears, which has become the name of the oppressed class of Russian society. According to their social status, peasants were divided into three groups: proprietary peasants belonged to various secular and ecclesiastical feudal lords; palace peasants who were in the possession of the palace department of the Moscow Grand Dukes (Tsars); Black-sown (later state) peasants lived in volost communities on lands that did not belong to any owner, but were obliged to perform certain duties in favor of the state.

The defeat of old, large cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc., the change in the nature of economic and trade relations and routes led to the fact that in the XIII - XV centuries. New centers received significant development: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, etc. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, and the number of artisans and merchants grew. Such branches of craft as blacksmithing, foundry, metalworking, and coining have achieved great success.

In the XIV-XV centuries, the unification of the fragmented Russian lands around several new political centers began. The Principality of Moscow became one of the organizers of this process. The unification around Moscow was facilitated by the active, flexible and far-sighted policy of the first Moscow princes, whose activities in collecting Russian lands were carried out in various forms: inheritance, purchases from local princes, receipt by label in the Horde and through conquest.

The process of Moscow's rise took place in fierce competition with Tver and other principalities of North-Eastern Rus', as well as Lithuania, around which the Western Russian lands were consolidated. The Moscow princes received from the khans of the Golden Horde the right to the Great Reign of Vladimir, which allowed them to establish their power in North-Eastern Rus'. Of great importance was the transfer of the Metropolitan's residence from Vladimir to Moscow, which turned into the spiritual center of the revived Russian state. The victory of Moscow Prince Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field (1380) was important for the establishment of Moscow as an all-Russian center.

The final stages of the “gathering” of Russian lands around Moscow were the annexation of the Yaroslavl, Rostov, and Tver principalities. Novgorod land, Pskov, as well as some part of Western Russian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Ivan III and Vasily III. At the same time, the liquidation of the last appanage principalities took place.

Story

At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' consisted of about 15 principalities. In most of them, the process of formation of appanages was intensively going on. At the same time, several potential centers of unification were brewing. The most powerful Russian lands in the northeast were Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk. To the beginning In the 13th century, the nominal supremacy of the Vladimir Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest was recognized by all Russian lands except Chernigov and Polotsk, and he acted as an arbiter in the dispute between the southern princes for Kyiv. In the 1st third of the 13th century, the leading position was occupied by the house of the Smolensk Rostislavichs, who, unlike other princes, did not split their principality into appanages, but sought to occupy tables outside its borders. With the arrival of the Monomakhovich representative Roman Mstislavich in Galich, the Galicia-Volyn principality became the most powerful principality in the southwest. In the latter case, a multi-ethnic center was formed, open to contacts with Central Europe.

However, the natural course of centralization was interrupted by the Mongol invasion (1237-1240). The further collection of Russian lands took place in difficult foreign policy conditions and was dictated primarily by political prerequisites. Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir in 1243 received a label from the khan for all of Rus' and sent his governor to Kyiv. But after the death of Yaroslav, who was poisoned in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum in 1246, two labels were issued to his sons. Andrey - to the Vladimir Principality, and Alexander Nevsky - to Kyiv and Novgorod. In Southern Rus', the only strong prince remained Daniil Romanovich Galitsky. In 1254, he received the title of King of Rus' from the hands of the Pope. Daniel's attempt to create an anti-Horde alliance ended in failure. Under the descendants of Daniel, the Galicia-Volyn principality disintegrated in the middle of the 14th century and was divided between Poland and Lithuania.

In the 2nd half of the 13th century, most of the previously existing lands underwent severe territorial fragmentation. Connections between them, from political contacts to mentions of each other in chronicles, reached a minimum. Kyiv fell into decay. It was ruled by local provincial princes who did not claim dominance over Russia. The old players left the arena, and principalities that had not previously played a noticeable role became new unifying centers.

Uniting around Lithuania

In the 14th century, most of the Russian lands were united around Vilna - the capital of the emerging Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. Thus, their territory left the power of the Rurikovichs and the formal political unity Rus'. The principalities of Polotsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Goroden, Kiev, most of Chernigov, Volyn, Podolia, Smolensk came under the rule of the Lithuanian grand dukes, descendants of Gediminas. Prince Olgerd declared his desire to subjugate all of Rus' to Lithuania and even secretly converted to Orthodoxy. In weakened Southern Rus', the Lithuanians met no competitors.

Uniting around Moscow

The situation was different in North-Eastern Rus', where the Rurikovichs, descendants of Monomakh, still ruled: there were several large principalities that fought with each other for control of the Vladimir grand-ducal table. From the beginning In the 14th century, the great princes of Vladimir began to bear the title of princes of all Rus', but their real power was limited only to the territory of the Vladimir land and Novgorod. In the struggle for possession of Vladimir, the advantage gradually fell on the side of the Moscow principality, largely due to the latter’s close connection with the Horde.

Northwestern Rus' (Novgorod and Pskov) continued to remain an autonomous unit, maneuvering between two centers, although since the time of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Novgorod, with rare exceptions, was subordinated precisely Vladimir princes. (In 1333, the Lithuanian prince Narimunt Gediminovich was invited to the Novgorod table for the first time).

The further development of the two Russian states followed different historical paths. Between the lands that became part of them, differences progressed. In the Moscow principality, under the influence of the Horde, a centralized control system with authoritarian princely power was taking shape; the nobility was in the position of princely servants. The Principality of Lithuania, partially preserving the traditions of the principalities of Kievan Rus, developed according to Central European models, with the preservation of vassal relations between the nobility and the prince, the autonomy of cities and some democratic institutions (Sejms, the Lithuanian Statute).

The unifying role of Lithuania decreased after the Lithuanian prince Jagiello began to pursue a policy of unification with Catholic Poland. In 1386, he concluded the Union of Krevo and became the Polish king. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, Lithuania and Poland merged into one state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and subsequently insoluble confessional contradictions arose there.

The unification of North-Eastern Rus' was completed during the reign of Ivan III (annexation of Novgorod 1478, Tver (1485)) and Vasily III (liquidation of the formal autonomy of Pskov (1510) and Ryazan (1518)). Ivan III also became the first sovereign ruler of Russia, refusing to submit to the Horde khan. He took the title sovereign of all Rus', thereby claiming all Russian lands.

The end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries became a kind of boundary before which the lands annexed to Russia formed a single whole with it. The process of annexing the rest of the inheritance of Ancient Rus' lasted for another two centuries; By this time, their own ethnic processes had gained strength there. In 1654, Left Bank Ukraine joined Russia. In 1668 the unity of the church was restored. The lands of Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the second partition of Poland in 1793.