Biographies of great people. Pope Innocent III 1198 Pope Innocent 3 criticism

Innocent III, Pope

Innocent III
Fragment of a fresco in the monastery of St. Benedict

Innocent III, pope

Innocentius Tertius(lat.) Worldly name: Lotario Conti, Count of Segni Origin: Gavignano (Lazio, Italy) Years of life: OK. 1161 - July 16, 1216 Years of Pontificate: 8 January 1198 - 16 July 1216 Father: Trasimondo Conti, Count of Segni Mother: Clarice Scotti

Coat of arms of the Counts of Senja

Lothario came from the family of the Counts of Segna and was the nephew of the Pope. He received his primary education in Rome, studied theology in Paris and jurisprudence in Bologna, becoming one of the most famous experts in theology and law of his time. Soon after his death, Lothario returned to Rome, holding various spiritual positions under subsequent popes. made him a subdeacon and a cardinal deacon. During the pontificate of the Orsini family, the worst enemies of Segna, Cardinal Lothario was in exile. He lived in Anagni, engaged in reflection and literary creativity. However, before his death, he convinced the cardinals to elect the 37-year-old Lothario as the new pope. Without apparent desire, he accepted the tiara and took the name Innocent III.

Taking advantage of the weakening of imperial power after his death, Innocent began to energetically restore papal power. The prefect of Rome, who ruled the city on behalf of the emperor, and the senator, who defended the rights of the citizens, swore allegiance to the pope. Having restored papal sovereignty over Rome, Innocent began to bring the surrounding regions - Romagna, Ancona, Spoleto, Assisi and Sora - to obedience. Soon, a widow, unable to defend the Sicilian throne for a minor, turned to Innocent for help. Innocent demanded that she confirm papal suzerainty over and renounce the privileges given to the Normans. In mid-November 1198, Innocent issued a bull in which he was solemnly proclaimed king. Before the bull reached Sicily, she died, appointing Innocent as guardian. Even the enemies of the papacy admit that for nine years Innocent selflessly helped the young king, ruling skillfully and conscientiously. In 1209 he was encouraged to marry Constance, a widow.

Simultaneously with the German problem, Innocent resolved issues in and. In January 1198, the legate Pietro of Capua, under threat of excommunication, forced the signing of a five-year truce. In 1199, Innocent imposed a nine-month interdict on the whole for abandoning his lawful wife Ingeborg for his mistress Agnes. In 1205, a conflict arose over the election of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Having refused three thousand marks for the approval of the royal candidate, the pope recommended Stephen Langton, rector of the University of Paris, to the department, who was dedicated on June 17, 1207 in Viterbo. opposed Langton's entry into , insisting on his candidate John de Gray, and ruined many monasteries that refused to recognize him. In 1208, Innocent imposed an interdict, excommunicated him in 1209, and in 1212 formally declared the king deposed. Only by refusing under the threat of a French invasion did he agree to recognize Archbishop Langton. Moreover, on May 13, 1213, he recognized it as a papal fief, promising to pay an annual tribute of 1,000 marks. On July 20, the pope lifted the punishment from the king, and after returning the confiscated lands of wealth to the church, on June 29, 1214, the pope lifted the interdict. However, the barons were outraged by this act of the king and the violation of their privileges. They forced the signing of the Magna Carta, which was not recognized by the pope.

Like his predecessors, Innocent III was zealous about the liberation of the Holy Land. He organized the Fourth Crusade, but the pilgrims, instead of fighting for the Holy Sepulcher, got involved in Byzantine strife and sacked Constantinople in 1204. It was founded on the spot, led by. The reunification of the Western and Eastern churches was also announced. Innocent was upset that the crusaders deviated from their original goal, but it was no longer in his power to change anything.

Innocent also zealously fought against various heresies. His main opponents were the Albigensians, members of a large sect in the south. They not only professed heretical doctrines, but also sought to spread them by force. In 1208, the Albigenses killed one of the missionaries sent by the pope to preach the true faith. Innocent imposed an interdict on a number of cities and called on the king to wage a war against heretics, which soon turned from a religious one into an ordinary one of conquest.

In general, there was hardly a country in Europe in whose affairs Innocent did not interfere. He annulled the marriages of the kings and recognized Sweden as his vassal and made attempts to restore unity with the Eastern Church. Innocent founded universities in Paris and Oxford and approved the creation of mendicant orders according to the rules of St. Francis and St. Dominic. In such a hectic activity, the pope was helped by a well-organized administrative and fiscal apparatus. A staff of curial advisers and legates sent to all European countries supervised the implementation of papal decrees. As a result of the activities of Innocent III, the apostolic capital, using economic progress and the revival of trade exchanges between the developing cities of Europe, turned into the most powerful financial magnate in Europe. Subordinate to the papacy thanks to the Franciscans, the “movement of the poor” neutralized the threat from socio-religious movements that undermined the authority of the church hierarchy. It should be added that the political plans of papal universalism in the program of Innocent III were closely connected with religious goals. He consistently implemented the theocratic principles of reform, which proceeded from the fact that the mediation of a hierarchy subordinate to papal authority must be imposed on the entire Christian society.

Towards the end of his life, Innocent organized the Fourth Lateran Council, which opened on November 15, 1215. It was the most important of the cathedrals of the Middle Ages. It adopted 70 canons, which formed the foundation of new church legislation. The Council condemned all religious and social doctrines propagated by the Cathars and Waldenses - heretics who fought for the rights of the poor. The conciliar fathers called on the people of God to correct their customs, condemned the corruption and immorality of the clergy, and tightened the requirement for priests to observe celibacy. Believers were obliged to confess only to their parish priest and to receive communion at least once a year, during Lent. Confessors were required to maintain the secrecy of confession. In the doctrinal field, the council formulated the theological aspects of the doctrine of the sacraments in the spirit of medieval scholasticism. Much was said at the council about church tithes. The council required Jews to wear special clothing that would distinguish them from Christians, and forbade them to go outside during Holy Week. The Council also spoke in favor of building separate quarters (the so-called ghettos) for Jews.

Innocent III died in Perugia during one of his apostolic journeys. His body, dressed in papal robes, was displayed on a hearse in the local cathedral. At night, thieves entered the cathedral and stole signs of papal authority. When the cardinals gathered the next day to celebrate the funeral service, they saw in the coffin only the naked remains of the one who had dominated the Christian world for 18 years. Innocent was buried in this cathedral, and only in December 1891 his remains were transferred to the Lateran Cathedral in Rome.

Innocent III (Innocentius) (1160 or 1161-1216), pope from 1198. Fought for the supremacy of popes over secular power; forced the English king and some other monarchs to recognize themselves as his vassals. Initiator of the 4th Crusade and the campaign against the Albigenses.

Innocent III, Pope

Innocentius Tertius

Worldly name: Lothario Conti, Count of Segni

Origin: Gavignano (Lazio, Italy)

Father: Trasimondo Conti, Count of Segni

Mother: Clarice Scotti.

Lothario came from the family of the Counts of Segna and was the nephew of Pope Clement III. He received his primary education in Rome, studied theology in Paris and jurisprudence in Bologna, becoming one of the most famous experts in theology and law of his time. Soon after the death of Alexander III, Lothario returned to Rome, holding various spiritual positions under subsequent popes. Gregory VIII made him a subdeacon, and Clement III made him a cardinal deacon. During the pontificate of Celestine III of the Orsini family, Segna's worst enemies, Cardinal Lothario was in exile. He lived in Anagni, engaged in reflection and literary creativity. However, before his death, Celestine convinced the cardinals to elect 37-year-old Lothario as the new pope. Without apparent desire, he accepted the tiara and took the name Innocent III.

Taking advantage of the weakening of imperial power after the death of Henry VI, Innocent began to vigorously restore papal power. The prefect of Rome, who ruled the city on behalf of the emperor, and the senator, who defended the rights of the citizens, swore allegiance to the pope. Having restored papal sovereignty over Rome, Innocent began to bring the surrounding regions - Romagna, Ancona, Spoleto, Assisi and Sora - to obedience. Soon, Constance, the widow of Henry VI, turned to Innocent for help, unable to defend the Sicilian throne for the young Frederick II. Innocent demanded that she confirm papal suzerainty over Sicily and renounce the privileges given by Adrian IV to the Normans. In mid-November 1198, Innocent issued a bull in which Frederick was solemnly proclaimed king. Before the bull reached Sicily, Constance died, appointing Innocent as Frederick's guardian. Even the enemies of the papacy admit that for nine years Innocent selflessly helped the young king, skillfully and conscientiously governing Sicily. In 1209 he induced Frederick to marry Constance, widow of Imre of Hungary.

The state of affairs in Germany was also favorable to the pope. Two opposing parties, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, elected two different kings. Innocent sent Bishop Sutri to one of the candidates, Philip of Swabia, with an offer of support in exchange for territorial concessions in Tuscany and the release of Sibylla of Sicily from prison. Philip responded evasively, and Innocent refused to recognize his election. At the same time, the second candidate, Otto IV, approached the pope. But before the pope made his choice, the contenders began to resolve the dispute by force of arms. Finally, on July 3, 1201, the papal legate, Cardinal Guido of Palestrina, at the Cologne Cathedral solemnly announced that the pope recognized Otto as king and threatened with excommunication those who did not submit to the choice. In May 1202, Innocent issued the bull "Venerabilem", which outlined the main theses about the relationship between the pope and the emperor:

German princes have the right to elect a king for themselves, who subsequently becomes emperor;

This right has been given to them by the Apostolic See since the imperial dignity passed from the Byzantine monarchs to Charlemagne;

The pope has the right to decide whether a candidate is worthy of the imperial title. The Pope conducts the rites of anointing, consecration and coronation of the Emperor, and he cannot anoint an unworthy candidate, a heretic or a pagan;

If the pope finds that the chosen king is unworthy of the imperial title, the princes must elect a new king. Otherwise, the pope will grant the imperial dignity to another king, since the church needs a protector and patron;

In case of difficulties in the election of the king, the pope must call on the princes to agree. Otherwise, the pope himself will choose the king, based not on the opinion of the majority, but on his own ideas about the merits of the candidates.

Immediately after the publication of the bull, the number of Otto’s supporters began to grow rapidly, but he soon scared away many of them with his disdainful attitude towards his friends. Already in 1207, Innocent recognized Philip as king and sent two legates, Ugolino from Ostia and Leo from Santa Croce, demanding that Otto voluntarily release Philip and give him the crown. However, the assassination of Philip by Otto Wittelsbach on June 21, 1208 changed the situation dramatically. At the congress of princes in Frankfurt on November 11, Otto was recognized by all the princes as king, and the pope invited him to Rome for his coronation. The ceremony took place on October 4, 1209. Otto left Spoleto, Ancona and the Tuscan lands donated by Countess Matilda to the pope, promised to help in the Sicilian issue, and recognized the pope's freedom and unlimited competence in appointments to spiritual positions. Otto also renounced the income received from free dioceses and confiscated properties of priests who died without a will. But, having barely received the crown, the treacherous emperor immediately seized not only Ancona, Tuscany and Spoleto, but also other papal possessions, distributing them to his associates. He also invaded Sicily to drive away the young Frederick II. On November 18, 1210, the pope solemnly excommunicated the emperor and united with Philip Augustus. Many German princes immediately turned away from Otto. At the Nuremberg Congress in September 1211, Frederick of Sicily was elected the new king. The young king made the same promises as Otto. In addition, he promised never to annex the Kingdom of Sicily to the Empire. Otto hastily turned his army to Germany, but found virtually no support among the princes. Having united with John of England, he attacked France, but on July 27, 1214 he was defeated at Bouvines. A few years later, Otto died, but Germany remained in the hands of Frederick II.

Simultaneously with the German problem, Innocent settled issues in France and England. In January 1198, legate Pietro Capua, under threat of excommunication, forced John the Landless and Philip Augustus to sign a five-year truce. In 1199, Innocent imposed a nine-month interdict on all of France because Philip Augustus abandoned his legal wife Ingeborg for his mistress Agnes. In 1205, a conflict arose in England over the election of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Having refused three thousand marks for the approval of the royal candidate, the pope recommended Stephen Langton, rector of the University of Paris, to the department, who was dedicated on June 17, 1207 in Viterbo. John opposed Langton's entry into England, insisting on his candidate John de Gray, and ruined many monasteries that refused to recognize him. In 1208, Innocent imposed an interdict on England, in 1209 he excommunicated John, and in 1212 he formally declared the king deposed. Only by refusing under the threat of a French invasion did John agree to recognize Archbishop Langton. Moreover, on May 13, 1313, John recognized England as a papal fief, promising to pay an annual tribute of 1,000 marks. On July 20, the pope lifted the punishment from the king, and after John returned the confiscated lands of wealth to the church, on June 29, 1214, the pope lifted the interdict from England. However, the barons were outraged by this act of the king and the violation of their privileges. They forced John to sign the Magna Carta, which was not recognized by the pope.

Like his predecessors, Innocent III was zealous about the liberation of the Holy Land. He organized the Fourth Crusade, but the pilgrims, instead of the battle for the Holy Sepulcher, got involved in Byzantine strife and in 1204 sacked Constantinople. In place of Byzantium, the Latin Empire was founded, led by Baudouin of Flanders. The reunification of the Western and Eastern churches was also announced. Innocent was upset that the crusaders deviated from their original goal, but it was no longer in his power to change anything.

Innocent also zealously fought against various heresies. His main opponents were the Albigensians, members of a large sect in the south of France. They not only professed heretical doctrines, but also sought to spread them by force. In 1208, the Albigenses killed one of the missionaries sent by the pope to preach the true faith. Innocent imposed an interdict on a number of cities and called on the King of France to wage a war against heretics, which soon turned from a religious one into an ordinary one of conquest.

In general, there was hardly a country in Europe in whose affairs Innocent did not interfere. He annulled the marriages of the kings of Leon and Portugal, recognized Pedro II of Aragon as his vassal, defended the Norwegians from their king Sverre and acted as a mediator in the Hungarian civil strife. In 1204, the pope sent Cardinal Leo to Bulgaria to crown Kaloyan “king of the Bulgarians and Wallachians.” He restored spiritual discipline in Poland, intervened in the dispute between Sverker II and Eric X in Sweden and made attempts to restore unity with the Eastern Church. Innocent founded universities in Paris and Oxford and approved the creation of mendicant monastic orders according to the statutes of St. Francis and St. Dominica. In such a hectic activity, the pope was helped by a well-organized administrative and fiscal apparatus. A staff of curial advisers and legates sent to all European countries supervised the implementation of papal decrees. As a result of the activities of Innocent III, the apostolic capital, using economic progress and the revival of trade exchanges between the developing cities of Europe, turned into the most powerful financial magnate in Europe. Subordinate to the papacy thanks to the Franciscans, the “movement of the poor” neutralized the threat from socio-religious movements that undermined the authority of the church hierarchy. It should be added that the political plans of papal universalism in the program of Innocent III were closely connected with religious goals. He consistently implemented the theocratic principles of the reform of Gregory VII, which proceeded from the fact that the mediation of a hierarchy subordinate to papal authority must be imposed on the entire Christian society.

Towards the end of his life, Innocent organized the Fourth Lateran Council, which opened on November 15, 1215. It was the most important of the cathedrals of the Middle Ages. It adopted 70 canons, which formed the foundation of the new church legislation. The Council condemned all religious and social doctrines propagated by the Cathars and Waldenses - heretics who fought for the rights of the poor. The conciliar fathers called on the people of God to correct their customs, condemned the corruption and immorality of the clergy, and tightened the requirement for priests to observe celibacy. Believers were obliged to confess only to their parish priest and to receive communion at least once a year, during Lent. Confessors were required to maintain the secrecy of confession. In the doctrinal field, the council formulated the theological aspects of the doctrine of the sacraments in the spirit of medieval scholasticism. Much was said at the council about church tithes. The council required Jews to wear special clothing that would distinguish them from Christians, and forbade them to go outside during Holy Week. The Council also spoke in favor of building separate quarters (the so-called ghettos) for Jews.

Innocent III died in Perugia during one of his apostolic journeys. His body, dressed in papal robes, was displayed on a hearse in the local cathedral. At night, thieves entered the cathedral and stole signs of papal authority. When the cardinals gathered the next day to celebrate the funeral service, they saw in the coffin only the naked remains of the one who had dominated the Christian world for 18 years. Innocent was buried in this cathedral, and only in December 1891 did Leo XIII transfer his remains to the Lateran Cathedral in Rome.

Elected pope in 1198, Innocent III (1161–1216) led the medieval papacy to its zenith of power. He was the son of a Roman nobleman and received a good theological education in Paris and a legal education in Bologna. Personal modesty and piety were combined in him with cheerfulness, common sense and the strength of moral principles, which was reflected in the papacy.

Innocent believed that he was the vicar of Christ, the highest authority on Earth. He believed that kings and princes derived their power from him and that he could therefore excommunicate them, replace them, or even impose an interdict, according to which the clergy in their dominions were prohibited from performing any service except the most essential. He believed that God had set before Peter's successor the goal of ruling not only the Church, but also “the whole world.” The Pope stands above people and below God. The state is related to the Church as the moon is to the sun: the moon shines with the reflected light of the sun. The state must bask in the glory of the papacy and receive its power from the Pope. It is not surprising that with such views of his own position and the power and prestige of the papacy under his leadership, Innocent was able to prevail over the rulers of the developing nation-states of England and France and defeat the Holy Roman Emperor.

The position of the papacy was further strengthened when, around 1140, the canon law of the Roman Church was published, compiled by Gratian, a monk-teacher from Bologna. This publication, known as the Decree, was the complete canonical law that could be used in all courts of the Roman Church. It should be remembered that Roman law, which formed the basis of this canonical law, supported the idea of ​​centralizing power in one hand. The Pope took everything from this system to strengthen his power and find governors with a legal education.

2.1. The struggle between secular and spiritual rulers

Innocent III, shortly after ascending to the throne once occupied by Peter, accepted the challenge of the rulers of the emerging nation-states of France and England and the Holy Roman Empire. He used his power primarily against Philip Augustus of France and showed that even a king could not violate God's moral commandments on marriage. Philip married a woman named Ingeborg from Denmark after the death of his first wife in 1193. When the bride arrived in France, he changed his mind and, declaring that he had been bewitched, forced the French bishops to recognize the marriage as invalid, and brought a woman named Agnes into his house as his wife. Ingeborg turned to the Pope for justice. Innocent ordered Philip to expel Agnes and restore Ingeborg as his legal wife. When Philip refused to obey, Innocent imposed an interdict on France in 1200. The interdict, which concerned all people of the nation, prohibited any service in the Church, with the exception of the baptism of infants and unction of the dying, allowed the celebration of Mass only for the sick or dying, and prohibited burying the dead in consecrated ground. The priest was only allowed to preach on the streets. The outrage that the interdict caused throughout France forced Philip to submit to the pope, in great anger he expelled Agnes and returned Ingeborg to the palace as his wife. Ingeborg's life did not become happier because of this, but Innocent, with the help of spiritual power, forced the ruler of one of the greatest young national states to fulfill the moral law.

Between 1205 and 1213, Innocent was able to defeat King John of England in the election of archbishop for the vacant seat of Canterbury. The archbishop, elected by the clergy of the archbishopric, a protege of John, was removed by Innocent when the question of approving this appointment arose. He appointed Stefan Langton instead. When John refused to recognize Langton, Innocent excommunicated John in 1209, and before that in 1208 he imposed an interdict on England. John was forced to submit as the English rebelled against him, and Philip in France, at the request of the Pope, was glad to take the opportunity to conquer England. John in 1212 admitted that he ruled the state as a feudal vassal of the Pope, and agreed to pay the Pope one thousand marks annually. These payments were fully noted only during the English Reformation.

Having successfully humbled the rulers of two of the most important developing national states, Innocent III decided that now was the time to sort things out with the head of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1202, he approved the pope's right to approve or reject the emperor elected by the subjects of the German Empire. The compromise at Worms created a situation that was only a tense truce between the emperor and the pope, and the Italian people wanted to enter into an alliance with the pope and end the influence of the emperor in Italy. Emperor Henry VI (1190–1197) married a Norman princess named Constance. As a result of this marriage, he laid claim to Sicily and began to rule the lands north and south of the papal dominions. His son Frederick became king of Sicily, and Innocent became his guardian after the death of Constance. When Otto IV forgot the promises he had made to Innocent at his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, Innocent supported Frederick's claim to the imperial throne and was able to help him win the election in 1212, making him Emperor Frederick II. Innocent then defeated Otto with the army of Philip II of France in 1214 at Bouvines.

Thus, through wise political maneuvering, Innocent began to appoint emperors, but although his reign marked the peak of medieval papal power, the great pope unknowingly created a problem for his followers. Twice - in the case of John in England and Otgon in the empire - Innocent asked the king of France to help him defeat his enemy. Thus, he weakened the Holy Roman Empire, but left his followers without protection from the powerful French state (before that, the pope could play on the contradictions between the French king and the emperor). It is not surprising that Boniface VIII was later humiliated by the rulers of the powerful states of England and France.

2.2. Innocent III as a Crusader

The IV Crusade for the liberation of Palestine from Muslims by capturing Egypt as a springboard for further marches was inspired by Innocent and several French priests. It was basically a French Crusade under the leadership of the Pope. When there was a need for ships to transport the crusaders to the scene of action, the Doge of Venice agreed to provide means of transportation and provisions for a large sum of money. The Crusaders arrived in Venice, but did not have enough money with them, so the Venetians asked them to recapture Zara, which once belonged to Venice, from the Christian king of Hungary. After capturing Zara, the crusaders sailed to Constantinople instead of Alexandria and, after a siege, captured the city in 1204. The Latin Empire was formed in Constantinople, which lasted until 1261. Although Innocent did not officially sanction the deviation of the crusaders from the planned route and their actions against Christians in Zara and in Constantinople, he accepted the results achieved, because thereby Byzantium came under his control, and Constantinople could serve as the basis for the V Crusade, which was planned against the Muslims. The Byzantine Empire, like rulers in the West, began to submit to his authority. He acted as a leading figure in medieval Europe.

Innocent also organized a Crusade led by Simon de Montfort against the Albigenses in southern France in 1208. The Albigensians were members of a heretical sect known as the Cathars. The Crusade continued in 1209 and effectively led to the destruction of the Cathars in southern France after many bloody battles. This approach received strong support from the Dominican and Franciscan orders. Heretics, as well as secular rulers, were required to submit to the supreme head of the Roman Church.

2.3. Fourth Lateran Council of 1215

Having got rid of heresy by force, Innocent tried to give a positive statement of truth. For this purpose he convened a general council in Rome. This council, known as the Fourth Lateran, obliged all laity to make annual confession to a priest and specified that all Christians must attend Mass at least on Easter. Even more important was the declaration of the dogma of transubstantiation, which from that time on all members of the Roman Church were to accept as true doctrine. The dogma declared that the substance of the bread and wine became the true body and blood of Christ after consecration by the priest. Bread and wine continue to influence the senses of man, retaining their taste, but metaphysical changes occur in the substance, so that bread and wine become, respectively, the body and blood of Christ. That is, the priest sacrifices them every time he celebrates mass. It is understandable that the people of the Middle Ages feared the clergy, who had the power to deprive a person of the opportunity to participate in these vital sacraments.

Innocent III is the Pope who ruled the Roman Catholic Church from January 8, 1198 to June 16, 1216. Innocent the Third was one of the youngest and at the same time the most educated and influential pontiffs of the Medieval era. It was he who managed to establish the power of the church in Europe, expand the boundaries of the papal state and make 11 kings his personal vassals. A favorite saying of Innocent III was a phrase attributed by historians to Pope Gregory the Seventh: “The Pope occupies the middle between God and man. He is less than God, but he is higher than man.” Some historians consider Innocent III a wise and far-sighted ruler and reformer of the church, while others consider him a dictator in the papal tiara, who launched a crusade against Christians and contributed to the rise of the Inquisition. The truth, as always, is somewhere in the middle.

Innocent III: birth, education and first steps to the Papal throne
The one who ascended the Papal throne on January 8, 1198 and took the name Innocent III, was born into a noble family in Italy, in the commune of Gavignano (near the city of Anagna) and at birth received the name Lotario Conti, Count of Segni, Count of Lavagni. The exact year of birth of the future Pope is unknown - according to some sources, it is 1160, and according to others - 1161. Lothario's father was Count Trasimondo from the Conti family - the family from which 9 Popes came. Innocent III's mother, Clarissa Scotti, was born into a noble and influential Roman patrician family. But the greatest role in the formation of the future pontiff was played by his uncle Paolo Scolari, better known as Pope Clement III.

According to the memoirs of contemporaries, Lothario from childhood was distinguished by perseverance, determination and outstanding intellectual abilities. Like all children from noble families, he received his primary education at home. Then the future Pope studied theology at the University of Paris and jurisprudence at the University of Bologna. Moreover, in Bolonia, Lothario’s teacher was Ugutius of Pisa himself, one of the most famous philologists and jurists of that time.

After completing his studies, Lothario Conti made a pilgrimage to Canterbury, to the cathedral, where Archbishop Thomas Becket was martyred in 1170. After returning to Rome, the future pontiff held various fairly high positions in the clergy and was known both among church ministers and among the laity as one of the best lawyers in Italy.

In September 1190, Pope Clement III elevated his nephew to the rank of cardinal. Since Lothario was only 30 years old at that time, he became one of the youngest cardinals in the Pope's entourage, and many representatives of the high clergy were prejudiced against him. It is therefore natural that after the death of Clement III in 1191, the newly elected Pope Celestine III sent the young cardinal to perform spiritual service in Anagna.

However, historians also consider another reason for the disgrace of Cardinal Lothario Conti during the papacy of Celestine III. Celestine III belonged to the Orsini family, which was at enmity with the family of Lothario's mother. It is therefore possible that it was a family feud that prompted the pontiff to expel Cardinal Lothario from the Papal Palace.

Years of disgrace in Ananya

While living in Anagna, the future Pope spent most of his time in the library. He studied the works of previous rulers of the Roman Catholic Church, and also expanded his knowledge of jurisprudence. It was probably during these years that Lothario Conti read the treatise of Gregory the Seventh, which described 27 points of papal power. Based on the principles described in this treatise, Innocent III, during his papacy, built the relationship of the church with the secular authorities. Also, according to historians of the 19th century, it was from the works of Gregory the Seventh that he drew the idea that the Pope takes the place of Christ on Earth.

In the period from 1191 to 1198, the future pontiff wrote hundreds of letters in which he described theological ideas and theories, issues related to medieval law, and his thoughts on strengthening the role of the church in Europe. Some of these letters have been preserved, and from them historians have made an unambiguous conclusion that Innocent III was one of the most educated people of that time.

Also during his stay in Anagna, the future Pope wrote his most famous works - the treatise “De Miseria Humanae conditionis” (Latin - “On the insignificance of the human lot”).

Election to the throne and first reforms

On January 8, 1198, Pope Celestine III died, and on the same day the cardinals unanimously elected Lotario Conti as the new Pope. Moreover, the reason for such a decision by the supreme clergy of the church remains a mystery to this day. Some historians believe that Celestine III himself, just before his death, appointed the disgraced cardinal as his successor, while others argue that the cardinals chose Lothario for personal reasons, and Celestine III wanted to see Giovanni Colonna on the throne after him. The ceremony of Lothario Conti accepting the papal tiara was very magnificent and was attended by both the nobility of Italy and the rulers of a number of European states.

Immediately after becoming pontiff, Innocent III began to carry out internal reforms in the church. In particular, he strengthened and improved the bureaucratic apparatus, thanks to which he gained greater control than his predecessor both over the treasury and over high-ranking clergy who were not part of the pontiff’s immediate circle.

His next step was to spread the power of the church in Italy and expand the boundaries of the papal state by annexing the Ancona March and Spoleto. Innocent III managed to get the perfect of Rome to take a vassal oath. And after the head of the eternal city became a vassal of the Pope, many aristocrats of Italy followed his example.

Establishment of the power of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe

Innocent III, at the request of the Queen of Sicily, Constance of Normandy, became the guardian of the infant heir to the throne, Frederick II of Staufen, in 1198, thus gaining temporary control of the kingdom. He also managed to wisely take advantage of the turmoil in Germany, and in 1208, having supported the candidate for king Otto IV, he placed him on the throne. Moreover, Otto did not live up to the hopes of Innocent III, and a year later he was overthrown, and the throne was taken by the protege and vassal of the Pope, Frederick II. In addition to the king of Germany, the rulers of France, Portugal, Leon, Norway, Hungary, Sweden, Aragon and England became the vassals of the pontiff.

The Pope also blessed the creation of the Franciscan Order and the Teutonic Order - one of the most influential knightly Catholic orders in the Middle Ages.

Fourth Crusade

The Fourth Crusade was launched by Pope Innocent III to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims. However, the knights never reached the Holy City - the army simply did not have enough money to cross the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, the crusaders first captured Zara, and then Constantinople. And although Innocent III at first tried to stop the army, later he not only forgave most of the participants in the campaign, but also led the process of forming a Latin Empire on the ruins of Constantinople, placing his vassal at its head.

Death

The idea of ​​liberating Jerusalem from Muslim rule never left Innocent III, and in 1216 he headed to northern Italy to reconcile the cities of Pisa and Genoa. He also planned to obtain money from the rulers of these cities to organize the fifth crusade. However, on the way, the pontiff contracted malaria and died suddenly at the age of 55 (according to other versions - 56) years. The burial of Innocent III took place in Perugia. But in 1891 his remains were reburied in the Lateran Palace in Rome.

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Innocent III, Pope

Innocentius Tertius

Worldly name: Lothario Conti, Count of Segni

Origin: Gavignano (Lazio, Italy)

Father: Trasimondo Conti, Count of Segni

Mother: Clarice Scotti.

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Lothario came from the family of the Counts of Segna and was the nephew of Pope Clement III. He received his primary education in Rome, studied theology in Paris and jurisprudence in Bologna, becoming one of the most famous experts in theology and law of his time. Soon after the death of Alexander III, Lothario returned to Rome, holding various spiritual positions under subsequent popes. Gregory VIII made him a subdeacon, and Clement III made him a cardinal deacon. During the pontificate of Celestine III of the Orsini family, Segna's worst enemies, Cardinal Lothario was in exile. He lived in Anagni, engaged in reflection and literary creativity. However, before his death, Celestine convinced the cardinals to elect 37-year-old Lothario as the new pope. Without apparent desire, he accepted the tiara and took the name Innocent III.

Taking advantage of the weakening of imperial power after the death of Henry VI, Innocent began to vigorously restore papal power. The prefect of Rome, who ruled the city on behalf of the emperor, and the senator, who defended the rights of the citizens, swore allegiance to the pope. Having restored papal sovereignty over Rome, Innocent began to bring the surrounding regions - Romagna, Ancona, Spoleto, Assisi and Sora - to obedience. Soon, Constance, the widow of Henry VI, turned to Innocent for help, unable to defend the Sicilian throne for the young Frederick II. Innocent demanded that she confirm papal suzerainty over Sicily and renounce the privileges given by Adrian IV to the Normans. In mid-November 1198, Innocent issued a bull in which Frederick was solemnly proclaimed king. Before the bull reached Sicily, Constance died, appointing Innocent as Frederick's guardian. Even the enemies of the papacy admit that for nine years Innocent selflessly helped the young king, skillfully and conscientiously governing Sicily. In 1209 he induced Frederick to marry Constance, widow of Imre of Hungary.

The state of affairs in Germany was also favorable to the pope. Two opposing parties, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, elected two different kings. Innocent sent Bishop Sutri to one of the candidates, Philip of Swabia, with an offer of support in exchange for territorial concessions in Tuscany and the release of Sibylla of Sicily from prison. Philip responded evasively, and Innocent refused to recognize his election. At the same time, the second candidate, Otto IV, approached the pope. But before the pope made his choice, the contenders began to resolve the dispute by force of arms. Finally, on July 3, 1201, the papal legate, Cardinal Guido of Palestrina, at the Cologne Cathedral solemnly announced that the pope recognized Otto as king and threatened with excommunication those who did not submit to the choice. In May 1202, Innocent issued the bull "Venerabilem", which outlined the main theses about the relationship between the pope and the emperor:

German princes have the right to elect a king for themselves, who subsequently becomes emperor;

This right has been given to them by the Apostolic See since the imperial dignity passed from the Byzantine monarchs to Charlemagne;

The pope has the right to decide whether a candidate is worthy of the imperial title. The Pope conducts the rites of anointing, consecration and coronation of the Emperor, and he cannot anoint an unworthy candidate, a heretic or a pagan;

If the pope finds that the chosen king is unworthy of the imperial title, the princes must elect a new king. Otherwise, the pope will grant the imperial dignity to another king, since the church needs a protector and patron;

In case of difficulties in the election of the king, the pope must call on the princes to agree. Otherwise, the pope himself will choose the king, based not on the opinion of the majority, but on his own ideas about the merits of the candidates.

Immediately after the publication of the bull, the number of Otto’s supporters began to grow rapidly, but he soon scared away many of them with his disdainful attitude towards his friends. Already in 1207, Innocent recognized Philip as king and sent two legates, Ugolino from Ostia and Leo from Santa Croce, demanding that Otto voluntarily release Philip and give him the crown. However, the assassination of Philip by Otto Wittelsbach on June 21, 1208 changed the situation dramatically. At the congress of princes in Frankfurt on November 11, Otto was recognized by all the princes as king, and the pope invited him to Rome for his coronation. The ceremony took place on October 4, 1209. Otto left Spoleto, Ancona and the Tuscan lands donated by Countess Matilda to the pope, promised to help in the Sicilian issue, and recognized the pope's freedom and unlimited competence in appointments to spiritual positions. Otto also renounced the income received from free dioceses and confiscated properties of priests who died without a will. But, having barely received the crown, the treacherous emperor immediately seized not only Ancona, Tuscany and Spoleto, but also other papal possessions, distributing them to his associates. He also invaded Sicily to drive away the young Frederick II. On November 18, 1210, the pope solemnly excommunicated the emperor and united with Philip Augustus. Many German princes immediately turned away from Otto. At the Nuremberg Congress in September 1211, Frederick of Sicily was elected the new king. The young king made the same promises as Otto. In addition, he promised never to annex the Kingdom of Sicily to the Empire. Otto hastily turned his army to Germany, but found virtually no support among the princes. Having united with John of England, he attacked France, but on July 27, 1214 he was defeated at Bouvines. A few years later, Otto died, but Germany remained in the hands of Frederick II.

Simultaneously with the German problem, Innocent settled issues in France and England. In January 1198, legate Pietro Capua, under threat of excommunication, forced John the Landless and Philip Augustus to sign a five-year truce. In 1199, Innocent imposed a nine-month interdict on all of France because Philip Augustus abandoned his legal wife Ingeborg for his mistress Agnes. In 1205, a conflict arose in England over the election of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Having refused three thousand marks for the approval of the royal candidate, the pope recommended Stephen Langton, rector of the University of Paris, to the department, who was dedicated on June 17, 1207 in Viterbo. John opposed Langton's entry into England, insisting on his candidate John de Gray, and ruined many monasteries that refused to recognize him. In 1208, Innocent imposed an interdict on England, in 1209 he excommunicated John, and in 1212 he formally declared the king deposed. Only by refusing under the threat of a French invasion did John agree to recognize Archbishop Langton. Moreover, on May 13, 1313, John recognized England as a papal fief, promising to pay an annual tribute of 1,000 marks. On July 20, the pope lifted the punishment from the king, and after John returned the confiscated lands of wealth to the church, on June 29, 1214, the pope lifted the interdict from England. However, the barons were outraged by this act of the king and the violation of their privileges. They forced John to sign the Magna Carta, which was not recognized by the pope.

Like his predecessors, Innocent III was zealous about the liberation of the Holy Land. He organized the Fourth Crusade, but the pilgrims, instead of the battle for the Holy Sepulcher, got involved in Byzantine strife and in 1204 sacked Constantinople. In place of Byzantium, the Latin Empire was founded, led by Baudouin of Flanders. The reunification of the Western and Eastern churches was also announced. Innocent was upset that the crusaders deviated from their original goal, but it was no longer in his power to change anything.

Innocent also zealously fought against various heresies. His main opponents were the Albigensians, members of a large sect in the south of France. They not only professed heretical doctrines, but also sought to spread them by force. In 1208, the Albigenses killed one of the missionaries sent by the pope to preach the true faith. Innocent imposed an interdict on a number of cities and called on the King of France to wage a war against heretics, which soon turned from a religious one into an ordinary one of conquest.

In general, there was hardly a country in Europe in whose affairs Innocent did not interfere. He annulled the marriages of the kings of Leon and Portugal, recognized Pedro II of Aragon as his vassal, defended the Norwegians from their king Sverre and acted as a mediator in the Hungarian civil strife. In 1204, the pope sent Cardinal Leo to Bulgaria to crown Kaloyan “king of the Bulgarians and Wallachians.” He restored spiritual discipline in Poland, intervened in the dispute between Sverker II and Eric X in Sweden and made attempts to restore unity with the Eastern Church. Innocent founded universities in Paris and Oxford and approved the creation of mendicant monastic orders according to the statutes of St. Francis and St. Dominica. In such a hectic activity, the pope was helped by a well-organized administrative and fiscal apparatus. A staff of curial advisers and legates sent to all European countries supervised the implementation of papal decrees. As a result of the activities of Innocent III, the apostolic capital, using economic progress and the revival of trade exchanges between the developing cities of Europe, turned into the most powerful financial magnate in Europe. Subordinate to the papacy thanks to the Franciscans, the “movement of the poor” neutralized the threat from socio-religious movements that undermined the authority of the church hierarchy. It should be added that the political plans of papal universalism in the program of Innocent III were closely connected with religious goals. He consistently implemented the theocratic principles of the reform of Gregory VII, which proceeded from the fact that the mediation of a hierarchy subordinate to papal authority must be imposed on the entire Christian society.

Towards the end of his life, Innocent organized the Fourth Lateran Council, which opened on November 15, 1215. It was the most important of the cathedrals of the Middle Ages. It adopted 70 canons, which formed the foundation of the new church legislation. The Council condemned all religious and social doctrines propagated by the Cathars and Waldenses - heretics who fought for the rights of the poor. The conciliar fathers called on the people of God to correct their customs, condemned the corruption and immorality of the clergy, and tightened the requirement for priests to observe celibacy. Believers were obliged to confess only to their parish priest and to receive communion at least once a year, during Lent. Confessors were required to maintain the secrecy of confession. In the doctrinal field, the council formulated the theological aspects of the doctrine of the sacraments in the spirit of medieval scholasticism. Much was said at the council about church tithes. The council required Jews to wear special clothing that would distinguish them from Christians, and forbade them to go outside during Holy Week. The Council also spoke in favor of building separate quarters (the so-called ghettos) for Jews.

Innocent III died in Perugia during one of his apostolic journeys. His body, dressed in papal robes, was displayed on a hearse in the local cathedral. At night, thieves entered the cathedral and stole signs of papal authority. When the cardinals gathered the next day to celebrate the funeral service, they saw in the coffin only the naked remains of the one who had dominated the Christian world for 18 years. Innocent was buried in this cathedral, and only in December 1891 did Leo XIII transfer his remains to the Lateran Cathedral in Rome.